123 research outputs found

    ์˜ˆํ˜ผํ•ฉ ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ์—”์ง„์—์„œ ํก๊ธฐ์œ ๋™ ์˜ํ–ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์‹คํ—˜์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ)--์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› :๊ณต๊ณผ๋Œ€ํ•™ ๊ธฐ๊ณ„ํ•ญ๊ณต๊ณตํ•™๋ถ€,2019. 8. ๋ฏผ๊ฒฝ๋•.Recently, emissions regulations and CO2 regulations are becoming stricter due to the global warming and increased fine dusts in the air. Especially, the regulations for conventional diesel engines which has superiority on its power and thermal efficiency than spark ignition (SI) engines are mostly the target. Due to its locally rich region combustion characteristic, higher particulate matter (PM) emissions are emitted than SI engine. To reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emission, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) was applied to lower the combustion temperature, and the additional use of after treatment systems such as lean NOx trap (LNT) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR) should be used these days. However, these additive after-treatment systems required high cost. Therefore, many diesel engine researchers are in now focusing on the new combustion concept that would decrease emissions while maintaining its efficiency. The most frequently studied concept for this was homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) concept, which improves in-cylinder air-fuel premixing ratio to realize the low emissions with high thermal efficiency. However, it was hard to lower the pressure rise rate under the high load condition. Thus, the combustion process using two different fuels with different reactivity, known as dual-fuel combustion or RCCI is mainly studied these days. Many studies have proven that dual-fuel combustion has a positive prospect in future combustion to achieve near-zero engine out emissions with high indicated thermal efficiency. However, incomplete combustion caused by the low temperature combustion resulted in high unburned HC emissions same as HCCI combustion, and also showed a limitation on high-load expansion because of the higher maximum in-cylinder pressure rise rate (mPRR). Thus, it is important to establish the operating strategy with dual-fuel combustion to achieve a low mPRR and emissions while maintaining high-efficiency. Most of the researches about RCCI combustion was focused on the diesel injection strategies and low reactivity fuel mixing ratio to reduce emissions with high thermal efficiency. However, there were no such studies about reducing mPRR by slowing down the combustion process with deteriorating the early phase combustion region, which is occurred by diesel auto-ignition process. Since the pressure rise rate in dual-fuel combustion is the main issue, finding the most effective way of combustion process is necessary. In this research, the characteristics of dual-fuel combustion on different hardware were studied to verify the effect of the in-cylinder flow motion on dual-fuel combustion. To see such an effect, different head types (swirl and tumble) were used with different combustion chamber shapes (conventional vs bathtub) since these two hardware systems are the representative factors that affects in-cylinder flow motion. The first experimental results show that dual-fuel combustion is effected by various engine parameters, such as diesel injection timing, intake pressure and the low reactivity fuel ratio. To achieve low emissions with high thermal efficiency, there are sweet spots for diesel injection timings, intake pressure and the fuel rate. Considering emissions with the mPRR, EGR should be used properly, however, the combustion stability also should have been considered in low load condition. The sweet spots for low to high load were different. For low load condition, gasoline (low reactivity fuel) ratio should not exceed 60 % to secure the combustion stability, and the diesel injection timing should not be advanced before certain point. However, for the high load condition, the combustion stability is not an issue, instead the pressure rise rate is too high. Thus, relatively higher ratio of low reactivity fuel should be used to have longer ignition delay and achieve low soot emission. In this experiment, the sweet spots were settled for the next step, which is optimization process. The second experiment was to find the proper compression ratio for dual-fuel combustion while expanding the load condition. It is evident that the higher compression ratio engine gives higher thermal efficiency by theoretical approach, however, faster combustion process due to high compression ratio causes higher mPRR. In this research, higher compression ratio (16) engine showed higher thermal efficiency at low load condition however, a limitation on expanding high load condition was also shown due to the pressure rise rate. Thus, relatively lower compression ratio (14) was recommended for the dual-fuel combustion. For the third experiment, it was to find the proper combustion chamber shape by changing the piston shape. With the conventional shape piston, the SOC was advanced by the effect of swirl. However, the combustion phase retarded more than bathtub piston at a certain point, which was effected by the squish region it has. Due to the curved piston shape, the abrupt combustion occurred under high load condition with high pressure rise rate, thus the highest load expansion was not possible. For the bathtub piston, the smooth premixed combustion was possible under high load condition, thus the bathtub piston was recommended for the dual-fuel combustion. The last experimental achievement of this research was comparing swirl and tumble motion effect on dual-fuel combustion. To achieve higher thermal efficiency and low heat transfer loss, it is well known that the combustion duration should be shorter as possible. The reason for the higher thermal efficiency with swirl motion on low load combustion was due to the faster combustion occurred by faster air-fuel mixing of diesel fuel by swirl effect. However, under the high load condition, this combustion characteristic is unfavorable. Unlike the tumble motion flow, the fast combustion at the first stage of the combustion process causes high pressure rise rate, which could not be controlled by EGR rate. High EGR rate makes poor combustion by rich combustion under high load condition due to the limitation of intake pressure. On the other hand, tumble motion flow gives slow combustion rate in the first stage of the combustion, and contributes on faster combustion at the second stage of the combustion. With higher tumble motion, the latter combustion speed increases, resulting in faster overall burn duration. This is an ideal combustion process while conducting the high load expansion. With higher tumble motion, thermal efficiency can be improved with potential of expanding higher load condition. Therefore, this research can contribute to the practical application of dual-fuel combustion in light-duty diesel engines.์ตœ๊ทผ ์ง€๊ตฌ ์˜จ๋‚œํ™” ๋ฐ ๋ฏธ์„ธ ๋จผ์ง€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ด€์‹ฌ์ด ๋†’์•„์ง€๋ฉด์„œ ์ž๋™์ฐจ ๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ๊ทœ์ œ ๋ฐ ์ด์‚ฐํ™”ํƒ„์†Œ ๊ทœ์ œ๊ฐ€ ์ ์ฐจ ๊ฐ•ํ™”๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ SI ์—”์ง„์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋” ๋†’์€ ์ถœ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ํšจ์œจ์„ ๋‚ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ข…๋ž˜์˜ ๋””์ ค ์—”์ง„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ทœ์ œ๊ฐ€ ๊ทธ ๋ชฉํ‘œ๊ฐ€ ๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋””์ ค ์—”์ง„์€ ๊ตญ๋ถ€์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋†ํ›„ํ•œ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ์˜ ์••์ถ•์ฐฉํ™”๋ฅผ ํ•˜๋Š” ์—ฐ์†Œ ํŠน์„ฑ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด SI ์—”์ง„์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์ž…์ž์ƒ ๋ฌผ์งˆ (PM)์ด ๋งŽ์ด ๋ฐฐ์ถœ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์งˆ์†Œ์‚ฐํ™”๋ฌผ (NOx)์„ ์ค„์ด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์—ฐ์†Œ ์˜จ๋„๋ฅผ ๋‚ฎ์ถ”๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ๋ฐฉ์‹์ธ ๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€์Šค์žฌ์ˆœํ™˜ (EGR)์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•ด์™”๊ณ , ์ตœ๊ทผ์—๋Š” ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์œผ๋กœ lean NOx Trap (LNT) ํ˜น์€ ์„ ํƒ์  ์ด‰๋งค ํ™˜์›๋ฒ• (SCR, selective catalyst reduction) ํ›„์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ์žฅ์น˜๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์ธ ํ›„์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ์žฅ์น˜๋Š” ๊ณ ๊ฐ€์˜ ์žฅ๋น„๋กœ ์—”์ง„ ๊ฐ€๊ฒฉ์„ ๋†’์ด๋Š” ๋‹จ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋ฏ€๋กœ ๋งŽ์€ ๋””์ ค ์—”์ง„ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์›๋“ค์€ ์—”์ง„ ์ž์ฒด์—์„œ ๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์ค„์ด๋ฉด์„œ ๋™์‹œ์— ๋†’์€ ํšจ์œจ์„ ์œ ์ง€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์‹ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์— ์ง‘์ค‘ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋งŽ์ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜๋Š” ๋‚ด์šฉ์€ HCCI ์—ฐ์†Œ ๋ฐฉ์‹์œผ๋กœ ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ๊ณต๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ ์˜ˆํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋ฅ ์„ ๋†’์—ฌ ์ €๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ์ด๋ค„๋‚ธ๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๋ฐฉ์‹์€ ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์œผ๋กœ์˜ ํ™•์žฅ ์‹œ ๋†’์€ ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์„ ์ œ์–ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ตœ๊ทผ์—๋Š” ๋ฐ˜์‘์„ฑ์ด ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋‘ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ํ™œ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์—ฐ์†Œ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ, ์ฆ‰ RCCI ์—ฐ์†Œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ๋งŽ์ด ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋งŽ์€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ด ์ €๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ์„ ๋งŒ์กฑ์‹œํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ฏธ๋ž˜์˜ ์‹  ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์„ ๋ฐํ˜€๋ƒˆ๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ HCCI ์—ฐ์†Œ์™€ ๋งˆ์ฐฌ๊ฐ€์ง€๋กœ ์ €์˜จ์—ฐ์†Œ ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ–๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๋‹ค๋Ÿ‰์˜ ๋ฏธ์—ฐํƒ„ํ™”์ˆ˜์†Œ (HC) ๋ฐฐ์ถœ์ด ์‹ฌ๊ฐํ•˜๊ณ , ๋งˆ์ฐฌ๊ฐ€์ง€๋กœ ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ์˜ ์šด์ „์—์„œ ์ตœ๊ณ  ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์ด ์ง€๋‚˜์น˜๊ฒŒ ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‹จ์ ์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ตœ๊ณ  ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์„ ์ค„์ด๊ณ  ์ €๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ์„ ์œ ์ง€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์šด์ „ ์ „๋žต์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ๊ธฐ์ดˆ๋ฅผ ํ™•๋ฆฝํ•ด ๋‘๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ๋งค์šฐ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋งŽ์€ RCCI ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋””์ ค ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ์˜ ๋ถ„์‚ฌ ์‹œ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์ €๋ฐ˜์‘์„ฑ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ์˜ ๋น„์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ์ €๊ฐ ๋ฐ ์—ดํšจ์œจ์„ ๋†’์ด๋Š”๋ฐ ์ง‘์ค‘ํ•ด์™”๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ๋””์ ค์˜ ์ž๋ฐœํ™” ํŠน์„ฑ์— ๊ธฐ์ธํ•œ ์—ฐ์†Œ์˜ ์ดˆ๋ฐ˜ ์†๋„๋ฅผ ๋‚ฎ์ถ”๋ฉด์„œ ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์ตœ๊ณ  ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์„ ๋‚ฎ์ถ”๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ์ง„ํ–‰๋œ ๋ฐ”๊ฐ€ ์—†๋‹ค. ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์ตœ๊ณ  ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์€ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์Ÿ์ ์ด๋ฏ€๋กœ, ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ณผ์ •์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ฐพ์•„๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ๋งค์šฐ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์œ ๋™ ํŠน์„ฑ์ด ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์•Œ์•„๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ํ•˜๋“œ์›จ์–ด ๋ณ€๊ฒฝ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์œ ๋™์„ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝ์‹œ์ผœ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์œ ๋™์— ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋Š” ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํ—ค๋“œ ํ˜•์ƒ (์Šค์›” vs ํ…€๋ธ”) ๋ฐ ์—ฐ์†Œ์‹ค ํ˜•์ƒ(์ข…๋ž˜ vs bathtub)์„ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝํ•ด๊ฐ€๋ฉฐ ๋น„๊ต ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฒซ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์‹คํ—˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ๊ฐ€ ๋””์ ค ๋ถ„์‚ฌ์‹œ๊ธฐ, ํก๊ธฐ ์••๋ ฅ, ์ €๋ฐ˜์‘์„ฑ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ ๋น„์œจ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ €๋ฐฐ๊ธฐ ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ์‹คํ˜„์‹œํ‚ค๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ตœ์ ์œผ ๋””์ ค ๋ถ„์‚ฌ ์‹œ๊ธฐ, ํก๊ธฐ ์••๋ ฅ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ ๋น„์œจ์ด ์žˆ์Œ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์ตœ๊ณ  ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ  ๋ฐ ์ €๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ์„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ–ˆ์„ ๋•Œ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ EGR ์‚ฌ์šฉ์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ ๋˜ํ•œ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ์˜ ์ตœ์  ์กฐ๊ฑด์€ ์ƒ์ดํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ €๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์šด์ „ ์กฐ๊ฑด์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ฐ€์†”๋ฆฐ ๋น„์œจ์ด 60 % ์ด์ƒ์ด ๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์—ฐ์†Œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ์„ ํ™•๋ณดํ•˜๊ธฐ ํž˜๋“ค์–ด ๊ทธ ์ด์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ๊ณต๊ธ‰ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†๊ณ , ๋””์ ค ๋ถ„์‚ฌ ์‹œ๊ธฐ ๋˜ํ•œ ์ผ์ •ํ•œ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋„˜์–ด ์ง€๋‚˜์น˜๊ฒŒ ์กฐ๊ธฐ๋ถ„์‚ฌ ๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์—ฐ์†Œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ์„ ํ™•๋ณดํ•˜๊ธฐ ํž˜๋“ค๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ๋Š” ์—ฐ์†Œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ์€ ๋ฌธ์ œ๊ฐ€ ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์ง€๋งŒ ๋ฐ˜๋Œ€๋กœ ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์ด ๋„ˆ๋ฌด ๋†’๋‹ค๋Š” ๋‹จ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ž…์ž์ƒ ๋ฌผ์งˆ ์ €๊ฐ ๋ฐ ์ถฉ๋ถ„ํ•œ ์ ํ™” ์ง€์—ฐ์„ ์–ป๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ €๋ฐ˜์‘์„ฑ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ(๊ฐ€์†”๋ฆฐ)์˜ ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋†’์•„์ ธ์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ถ€ํ•˜๋ณ„ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ตœ์ ํ™” ์‹คํ—˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์˜์—ญ๋ณ„ ์ตœ์ ์ ๋“ค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ธฐ์ค€์„ ์žก์•˜๋‹ค. ๋‘ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋กœ๋Š” ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ ์ธก๋ฉด์— ์žˆ์–ด ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์••์ถ•๋น„๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜๋Š” ์‹คํ—˜์ด ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋ก ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ณ  ์••์ถ•๋น„ ์—”์ง„์ด ๋” ๋†’์€ ์—ดํšจ์œจ์„ ์–ป์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ, ๊ณ  ์••์ถ•๋น„์— ์˜ํ•œ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๋ฐ˜์‘์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๋†’์€ ์ตœ๊ณ  ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์ด ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ €๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ ๊ณ  ์••์ถ•๋น„ ์—”์ง„ (16)์—์„œ ๋” ๋†’์€ ํšจ์œจ์„ ์–ป์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜, ์ง€๋‚˜์นœ ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ์— ํ•œ๊ณ„๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋น„๊ต์  ์••์ถ•๋น„๊ฐ€ ๋‚ฎ์€ (14) ์—”์ง„์ด ๋ถ€ํ•˜ํ™•์žฅ์„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•œ ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ ์—”์ง„์— ๋” ์ ์ ˆํ•จ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์„ธ ๋ฒˆ์งธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋กœ๋Š” ์ตœ์ ์˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ์‹ค ํ˜•์ƒ์„ ์ฐพ๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์„ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝํ•ด๊ฐ€๋ฉฐ ์‹คํ—˜์„ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ข…๋ž˜์˜ ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์—์„œ์˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋Š” bathtub ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์Šค์›” ์˜ํ–ฅ์ด ๊ฐ•ํ•ด ์—ฐ์†Œ ์‹œ์ž‘ ์ง€์ ์ด ๋น ๋ฅธ ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋‹ค๋งŒ, ๋””์ ค ๋ถ„์‚ฌ์‹œ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ผ์ • ์ˆ˜์ค€์ด ๋„˜์–ด๊ฐ€๊ฒŒ ๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ squish ์˜์—ญ์œผ๋กœ ๋ถ„์‚ฌ๋œ ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์—ฐ์†Œ์ƒ์ด bathtub์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋Šฆ์–ด์ง€๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ตด๊ณก์ง„ ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ ๊ธ‰์ž‘์Šค๋Ÿฌ์šด ์—ฐ์†Œ ๋ฐ˜์‘์ด ์ผ์–ด๋‚˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๊ณ , ๊ทธ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์ด ๋†’์•„์ ธ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ์— ์–ด๋ ค์›€์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด bathtub ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ๋ถ€๋“œ๋Ÿฌ์šด ์˜ˆํ˜ผํ•ฉ ์—ฐ์†Œ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ–ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ์—์„œ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ํ™•์žฅ์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ํ”ผ์Šคํ†ค ํ˜•์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ ํ•ฉํ•จ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋กœ๋Š” ์Šค์›” ๋ฐ ํ…€๋ธ” ์œ ๋™์ด ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ์–ป๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ„์„ ์งง๊ฒŒ ํ•˜์—ฌ ์—ด์ „๋‹ฌ ์†์‹ค์„ ์ค„์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ €๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ ์Šค์›” ์œ ๋™์ด ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๊ณ ํšจ์œจ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ์Šค์›” ์œ ๋™์— ์˜ํ•ด ์—ฐ๋ฃŒ์™€ ๊ณต๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ์˜ˆํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋˜์–ด ์—ฐ์†Œ๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜๊ณ , ๊ทธ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ง„๊ฐ ๋œ ์—ฐ์†Œ์ƒ ๋ฐ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์—ฐ์†Œ๊ธฐ๊ฐ„์„ ๊ฐ€์ ธ์˜ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ์˜์—ญ์—์„œ ์šด์ „์ด ๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋น ๋ฅธ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋Š” ์ ํ•ฉํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ํ…€๋ธ” ์œ ๋™์—์„œ์˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ์™€ ๋‹ค๋ฅด๊ฒŒ ์ดˆ๋ฐ˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ ํŠน์„ฑ์ด ๋งค์šฐ ๋น ๋ฅด๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ์‹ค๋ฆฐ๋” ์••๋ ฅ ์ƒ์Šน๋ฅ ์ด EGR์— ์˜ํ•ด์„œ๋„ ์ œ์–ดํ•˜๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ํž˜๋“ค๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ํก๊ธฐ์••๋ ฅ ์‚ฌ์šฉ ์ œํ•œ์œผ๋กœ ์ธํ•ด ๋†’์€ EGR ์‚ฌ์šฉ์€ ๋†ํ›„ํ•œ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ์•ผ๊ธฐํ•˜์—ฌ ์—ฐ์†Œ ์•ˆ์ •์„ฑ์„ ์ ์ฐจ ๋–จ์–ด๋œจ๋ฆฐ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด์— ํ…€๋ธ” ์œ ๋™์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ดˆ๋ฐ˜ ์—ฐ์†Œ๋Š” ์ƒ๋Œ€์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋Š๋ฆฐ ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ํ›„๋ฐ˜๋ถ€ ์—ฐ์†Œ๊ฐ€ ์ƒ๋‹นํžˆ ๋น ๋ฅธ ํŠน์„ฑ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ…€๋ธ” ์œ ๋™์ด ๊ฐ•ํ™” ๋ ์ˆ˜๋ก ํ›„๋ฐ˜๋ถ€ ์—ฐ์†Œ ์†๋„๊ฐ€ ๋นจ๋ผ์ง€๊ฒŒ ๋˜๊ณ , ์ „์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ„์„ ์ค„์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์—ฐ์†Œ ํŠน์„ฑ์€ ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ ๊ณ ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ด์ƒ์ ์ธ ์—ฐ์†Œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋†’์€ ํ…€๋ธ” ์œ ๋™์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋” ๋†’์€ ์—ดํšจ์œจ์„ ์–ป์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ณ , ์ตœ๊ณ  ๋ถ€ํ•˜ ํ™•์žฅ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ ๋˜ํ•œ ๋†’์•„์ง„๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ์œตํ•ฉ์—ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ์Šน์šฉ ๋””์ ค ์—”์ง„์— ์‹ค์งˆ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ ์šฉํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ดˆ์„์„ ๋งˆ๋ จํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research Background and Motivation 1 1.1.1 Emissions regulations 1 1.1.2 Literature Review (advanced CI combustion concepts) 8 1.1.3 Dual-fuel PCI combustion concept 14 1.2 Research Objective 18 Chapter 2. Experimental Apparatus 21 2.1 Single cylinder dual-fuel combustion engine 21 2.1.1 Test engine specifications 21 2.1.2 Test head specifications 28 2.1.3 Test piston specifications 32 2.2 Engine test and measurement equipment 34 2.2.1 Engine test equipment 34 2.2.2 Tested fuels and measurement systems for fuel flow rate 36 2.2.3 Measurement systems for emissions and EGR 41 2.2.4 Measurement systems for combustion analysis 45 Chapter 3. Experimental Results of Various Engine Parameter Effects on Gasoline/Diesel Dual-fuel Combustion 51 3.1 Combustion Characteristics of Dual-fuel Combustion by varying engine parameters (ฮฆ / Diesel Ratio / Diesel Injection Timing) 52 3.1.1 Experimental conditions 52 3.1.2 Experimental results and analysis (low rpm / load condition) 55 3.1.3 Experimental results and analysis (high rpm / load condition) 71 3.2 Effect of EGR rate on dual-fuel combustion 81 3.2.1 Experimental conditions 81 3.2.2 Experimental results and analysis 83 3.3 Effects of compression ratio (Cr 16 vs 14) 93 3.3.1 Experimental conditions 93 3.3.2 Results of combustion and emissions characteristics with different injection timings and gasoline rate (Cr 16 vs 14) 95 3.4 Optimization of Dual-fuel PCI combustion under different compression ratios (Cr 16 vs 14) 105 3.4.1 Experimental conditions 105 3.4.2 Optimization process of dual-fuel PCI combustion 109 3.4.3 Experimental results and analysis 111 3.5 Effect of Combustion Chamber (Stock vs Bathtub) 125 3.5.1 Motivation 125 3.5.2 Experimental conditions 125 3.5.3 Experimental results and analysis 130 Chapter 4. Experimental Results of Intake flow motion (Swirl vs Tumble) Effects Dual-fuel Combustion 144 4.1 Motivation 144 4.2 Effect of Swirl Control Valve on dual-fuel combustion 146 4.2.1 Experimental conditions 146 4.2.2 Experimental results and analysis 148 4.3 Effect of Head Shape Part 1: Swirl vs Tumble 158 4.3.1 Experimental conditions 158 4.3.2 Experimental results and analysis 163 4.4 Effects of Head Shape Part 2: High vs Low Tumble 189 4.4.1 Motivation 189 4.4.2 Experimental conditions 190 4.4.3 Experimental results and analysis 193 Chapter 5. Conclusions 209 Chapter 6. Bibliography 214 ๊ตญ ๋ฌธ ์ดˆ ๋ก 227Docto

    ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•œ ๊ณ ์˜จ ์ดˆ์ „๋„์ฒด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ)--์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› :์ž์—ฐ๊ณผํ•™๋Œ€ํ•™ ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌยท์ฒœ๋ฌธํ•™๋ถ€(๋ฌผ๋ฆฌํ•™์ „๊ณต),2019. 8. ์ด์ง„ํ˜ธ.Since the first High-TC cuprate superconductor was discovered in 1986, tremendous quantity of theoretical and experimental studies have been conducted. Despite enthusiastic endeavors, the phenomena in cuprate superconductors are not fully understood and conundrums are mainly originated from the complicated phase diagram where various phases are entangled. In this thesis, I will present the first application of nanometer resolution Scanning Josephson Tunneling Microscopy (SJTM) to a high-TC cuprate superconductor, Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x. Josephson current, or Cooper-pair tunneling current, enables the direct access to superconducting order parameter and superconducting condensate. An in-situ fabricated Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x-tip is used with an aid of in-situ tip preparation stage. SJTM studies are conducted at two different temperatures, 4.2 K and 50 mK. Detailed characterizations demonstrated imaging capability of Josephson critical current with nanometer resolution for both temperatures. In the SJTM study at 4.2 K, spatial variation of superconducting gap is directly measured for the first time, while the temperature window for SJTM is widely expanded to 4.2 K from mK. In the SJTM study at 50 mK, periodic modulation of superconducting condensate is observed for the first time.1986๋…„ ์ตœ์ดˆ๋กœ ๊ณ ์˜จ ์ดˆ์ „๋„์ฒด๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ๋œ ์ดํ›„ ๋งŽ์€ ์ด๋ก ์  ๋ฐ ์‹คํ—˜์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋…ธ๋ ฅ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ตฌ๋ฆฌํ™”ํ•ฉ๋ฌผ ๊ณ ์˜จ ์ดˆ์ „๋„์ฒด ํ˜„์ƒ์„ ์™„์ „ํžˆ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜์ง€ ๋ชปํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๊ณ , ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋‚œ์ œ๋“ค์€ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ์ƒ๋“ค์ด ์–ฝํ˜€์žˆ๋Š” ์ƒํ‰ํ˜• ๊ทธ๋ฆผ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์ธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๊ณ ์˜จ ์ดˆ์ „๋„ ํ˜„์ƒ์— ์ง์ ‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ ‘๊ทผํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋‚˜๋…ธ๋ฏธํ„ฐ ํ•ด์ƒ๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ ์„ ์ฒ˜์Œ์œผ๋กœ ๊ณ ์˜จ ์ดˆ์ „๋„์ฒด์ธ Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x์— ์ ์šฉํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ์ „๋ฅ˜ ํ˜น์€ Cooper-pair ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ดˆ์ „๋„ ์งˆ์„œ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜์™€ ์ดˆ์ „๋„ ์‘์ถ•์ฒด๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. In-situ ํŒ ์Šคํ…Œ์ด์ง€๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด in-situ ๊ฐ€๊ณตํ•œ Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+xํŒ์ด ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” 4.2 K๊ณผ 50 mK ๋‘ ์˜จ๋„์—์„œ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋‘ ์˜จ๋„ ๋ชจ๋‘์—์„œ ๋‚˜๋…ธ๋ฏธํ„ฐ ํ•ด์ƒ๋„๋กœ ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ์ž„๊ณ„ ์ „๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์œผ๋กœ ์ƒ์„ธํžˆ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. 4.2 K์—์„œ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•œ ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ฒ˜์Œ์œผ๋กœ ์ดˆ์ „๋„ ๊ฐญ์˜ ๊ณต๊ฐ„์ƒ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ง์ ‘ ์ธก์ •ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ์˜ ์ธก์ • ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ ์˜จ๋„ ๋ฒ”์œ„๋ฅผ mK์—์„œ 4.2 K์œผ๋กœ ์ƒ์Šน์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค. 50 mK์—์„œ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•œ ์ฃผ์‚ฌํ˜• ์กฐ์…‰์Šจ ํ„ฐ๋„๋ง ํ˜„๋ฏธ๊ฒฝ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ดˆ์ „๋„ ์‘์ถ•์ฒด๊ฐ€ ์ฃผ๊ธฐ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ฒ˜์Œ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Brief History 1 1.3 Conventional Superconductivity 3 Chapter 2. Phenomenology of Cuprates 8 2.1 Crystal Structure 8 2.2 Phase Diagram 10 2.2.1 Antiferromagnetic Insulator: CuO2 Physics 11 2.2.2 d-wave Superconductivity 15 2.2.3 Pseudogap 16 2.2.4 Density Waves in Cuprates 19 Chapter 3. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 22 3.1 Principles of STM 22 3.1.1 Electron Tunneling 22 3.1.2 Operation of STM 25 3.2 Types of Measurements 26 3.2.1 Topography 26 3.2.2 Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy 28 3.3 Design and Construction of Low Temperature-STM 29 3.3.1 ULV-Lab 30 3.3.2 Cryostat 33 3.3.3 STM Head 34 Chapter 4. Scanning Josephson Tunneling Microscopy 38 4.1 Introduction 38 4.2 Brief History 38 4.3 Single-particle Tunneling in Superconductor Junction 39 4.3.1 Quasiparticle Tunneling 39 4.3.2 Andreev Reflection 42 4.4 Josephson Effect 43 4.4.1 Ideal Josephson Junction 43 4.4.2 The RCSJ Model 46 4.4.3 Thermal Fluctuations 50 4.4.4 Ultra-small Josephson Junction I 52 4.4.5 Ultra-small Josephson Junction II: Incoherent-pair Tunneling 56 4.5 Technical Aspects 61 4.5.1 Tip Fabrication 61 4.5.2 Ultra-low Vibration 63 4.5.3 Characterization of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x-tip 63 Chapter 5. Scanning Josephson Tunneling Microscopy at 4.2 K 65 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 Characterization of a Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x-tip 65 5.3 Single-tunneling Regime to Pair-tunneling Regime 71 5.4 Characterization of r-space resolution 75 5.5 Superconducting Gap map 79 Chapter 6. Scanning Josephson Tunneling Microscopy at 50 mK 85 6.1 Introduction 85 6.2 Cooper-pair Density Wave 85 6.2.1 Fulde-Ferrel-Larkin-Ovchinnikov State 85 6.2.2 Pair Density Wave in Cuprates 88 6.3 Characterization of a Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x-tip 89 6.4 Single-tunneling Regime to Pair-tunneling Regime 91 6.5 Characterization of r-space resolution 92 6.6 Detection of Cooper-pair Density Wave 94 6.7 Discussion 96 Chapter 7. Conclusion 97 Biliography 99Docto

    ์ „๊ธฐ์œ ๋ณ€์œ ์ฒด์˜ ์••์ฐฉ์œ ๋™์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ

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    Thesis (doctoral)--์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› :ํ™”ํ•™๊ณตํ•™๊ณผ,1998.Docto

    ์ •ํ™•ํ•œ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง€ ๋ถ„๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ด์‚ฐ ์ฝ”์‚ฌ์ธ ๋ณ€ํ™˜ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ํ•ฉ์„ฑ๊ณฑ ์‹ ๊ฒฝ๋ง

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    MasterFeatures extracted from convolutional layers can be used in Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to classify images. In recent years, to increase the classification accuracy, CNNs that use features from the frequency domain have been introduced. The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is one of the main transform functions that can be used to obtain frequency features. Such frequency features can help identify distinguishing characteristics of images that are not easily observable using the spatial features extracted from images using classical CNNs. This thesis proposes a method that combines spatial and frequency features to increase the classification accuracy. This method changes the backpropagation equation, which is the basis for the training of neural networks, to use both spatial and frequency values. The proposed method was evaluated by measuring training times and image classification accuracies with a variety of standard image classification datasets. For a given desired level of image classification accuracy, the training time required, which is directly proportional to the number training epochs used, was substantially reduced in comparison to previous state-of-the-art methods. When evaluated using the highest image classification accuracies achieved, the proposed method consistently outperformed all other methods, with the increase most significant (an increase of 6.79 percentage points) when a texture image dataset was used. This is achieved using the same level of total data parameter size required for training. The proposed method can contribute to the improvement of data analysis systems for sports games
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