A semiotic approach to the use of metaphor in human-computer interfaces

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University, 20/9/1999.Although metaphors are common in computing, particularly in human-computer interfaces, opinion is divided on their usefulness to users and little evidence is available to help the designer in choosing or implementing them. Effective use of metaphors depends on understanding their role in the computer interface, which in tum means building a model of the metaphor process. This thesis examines some of the approaches which might be taken in constructing such a model before choosing one and testing its applicability to interface design. Earlier research into interface metaphors used experimental psychology techniques which proved useful in showing the benefits or drawbacks of specific metaphors, but did not give a general model of the metaphor process. A cognitive approach based on mental models has proved more successful in offering an overall model of the process, although this thesis questions whether the researchers tested it adequately. Other approaches which have examined the metaphor process (though not in the context of human-computer interaction) have come from linguistic fields, most notably semiotics, which extends linguistics to non-verbal communication and thus could cover graphical user interfaces (GUls). The main work described in this thesis was the construction of a semiotic model of human-computer interaction. The basic principle of this is that even the simplest element of the user interface will signify many simultaneous meanings to the user. Before building the model, a set of assertions and questions was developed to check the validity of the principles on which the model was based. Each of these was then tested by a technique appropriate to the type of issue raised. Rhetorical analysis was used to establish that metaphor is commonplace in command-line languages, in addition to its more obvious use in GUIs. A simple semiotic analysis, or deconstruction, of the Macintosh user interface was then used to establish the validity of viewing user interfaces as semiotic systems. Finally, an experiment was carried out to test a mental model approach proposed by previous researchers. By extending their original experiment to more realistically complex interfaces and tasks and using a more typical user population, it was shown that users do not always develop mental models of the type proposed in the original research. The experiment also provided evidence to support the existence of multiple layers of signification. Based on the results of the preliminary studies, a simple means of testing the semiotic model's relevance to interface design was developed, using an interview technique. The proposed interview technique was then used to question two groups of users about a simple interface element. Two independent researchers then carried out a content analysis of the responses. The mean number of significations in each interview, as categorised by the researchers, was 15. The levels of signification were rapidly revealed, with the mean time for each interview being under two minutes, providing effective evidence that interfaces signify many meanings to users, a substantial number of which are easily retrievable. It is proposed that the interview technique could provide a practical and valuable tool for systems analysis and interface designers. Finally, areas for further research are proposed, in particular to ascertain how the model and the interview technique could be integrated with other design methods

Evaluation of Community Engagement in the Design and Delivery of Health Promotion Interventions

Background: Community engagement has become mainstream practice in many sectors, such that many might say that it has become another box to be ticked when planning and delivering projects. There are many potential benefits of community engagement to the residents, local stakeholders and external delivery agencies; however gaps have been identified in the evaluation of impact, barriers and facilitators of community engagement (NICE, 2008). This study prospectively looks at how the process of community engagement under the Well London programme (a five-year health promotion programme which addresses physical activity, diet and mental wellbeing) was delivered in multiple deprived neighbourhoods, and how this process influenced the different stakeholders and the health promotion projects delivered. Methods: This study used a mixed method approach to examine the process, perceptions, impacts, incentives, barriers and challenges of community engagement. Data were collected through literature review, questionnaire surveys, participant observation, qualitative interviews and evidence from documentary sources. Results: The study found that the World Café and appreciative enquiry approaches used were useful and effective tools for engaging communities; and the primary motivation for residents’ participation was the desire to belong to a community which they could help shape for the better. Key lessons from the process are the need to manage the expectations of local stakeholders and residents by effectively communicating programme goals and limitations; and the need for sufficient time to build relationships and trust for engagement. Residents’ level of engagement was influenced by past experiences of consultation processes, local politics and regeneration. There is a need to have good knowledge of the community that is being engaged, and to know the local context and peculiarities which differentiate communities. Conclusion: Residents of different ages, gender and cultures engage differently and processes should be sensitive to, and accommodate these differences. The impact of the CEP on the design and delivery of projects was inconclusive