Fabrications and Applications of Micro/nanofluidics in Oil and Gas Recovery: A Comprehensive Review

Understanding fluid flow characteristics in porous medium, which determines the development of oil and gas oilfields, has been a significant research subject for decades. Although using core samples is still essential, micro/nanofluidics have been attracting increasing attention in oil recovery fields since it offers direct visualization and quantification of fluid flow at the pore level. This work provides the latest techniques and development history of micro/nanofluidics in oil and gas recovery by summarizing and discussing the fabrication methods, materials and corresponding applications. Compared with other reviews of micro/nanofluidics, this comprehensive review is in the perspective of solving specific issues in oil and gas industry, including fluid characterization, multiphase fluid flow, enhanced oil recovery mechanisms, and fluid flow in nano-scale porous media of unconventional reservoirs, by covering most of the representative visible studies using micro/nanomodels. Finally, we present the challenges of applying micro/nanomodels and future research directions based on the work

Rock and fluid flow characterization on unconventional reservoir using confocal-laser-microscopy and micromodels

Unconventional oil reservoirs have become significant sources of petroleum production and have even better potential in the future. Many unconventional oil systems consist of nanoscale pore throats, sub-micro-scale pores and micro-scale fractures that are significantly smaller than those from conventional reservoirs. To understand fluid flow behavior in unconventional reservoir, lab approaches were conducted using lab-on-chip method for the direct visualization of the water/oil flow in sub-micro-scale channels and the flow behavior with influence of surfactant and fractures. In this work, tight sandstone thin slice was characterized using confocal-laser-microscope. Using designed micromodels, microscopic study of interface and residual oil distribution as well as macroscopic study of displacement profile and oil recovery factor were acquired. Interface between oil and water during displacement were determined using parallel micromodels in which six different flow patterns were summarized in drainage process and two patterns including a \u27fading out\u27 phenomenon were observed during imbibition process. Fracture existence and azimuth as well as surfactant effect on oil recovery factor and residual oil distribution were evaluated using fractured micromodels. Surfactants were evaluated by Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) and Winsor type as well as the quantification of the morphology of dispersed phase in emulsion. It was concluded that for fractured micromodels with network etching depth of 500 nm, micromodels with fracture along flow direction had better oil recovery factor than micromodels without fracture, at the same time, a smaller oil recovery factor were determined using micromodels with fracture perpendicular to flow direction comparing to those without fracture. Displacement processes were monitored under laser-confocal-microscope and detailed residual oil distribution was observed and analyzed --Abstract, page iii

Experimental study on stability and rheological properties of aqueous foam in the presence of reservoir natural solid particles

The authors would like to acknowledge the school of engineering at the University of Aberdeen and University Technology Malaysia (UTM) to provide required materials and facilities to complete this research.Peer reviewedPostprin

Literature review on NAPL contamination and remediation

Remediation of polluted soils and groundwater is of major concern due to the increasing number of contaminated aquifers. Subsurface aquifers constitute one of the most important sources of drinkable water. In recent years, water needs have been increasing due to increases in development and human population. Several sorts of contaminants can be found in groundwater: metal ions, pesticides, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc. The toxicity of these compounds varies and so do guidelines that establish allowable concentration levels in drinking water. Among the aforementioned types of compounds, a particular importance is assumed by those which exist as a separate phase when their concentrations in water exceed a certain limit. The transport behavior and dynamics of multiphase contaminants are very different from their dissolved counterparts, and are very difficult both to describe and to model. Several phenomena can take place, such as organic phase trapping, formation of ganglia and pools of contaminant, sorption, hysteresis in both soil imbibition and drainage, capillarity, fingering, and mass-transfer. In such cases, our ability to describe and predict the fate of a contaminant plume in which a separate organic phase occurs is limited, and research within this field is quite open. Much effort has been devoted in trying to describe the characteristics of the phenomena occuring in multiphase systems, and several models and formulations have been proposed for predicting the fate of contaminants when present in such systems (see Miller et al. 1997) for a review on multiphase modeling in porous media). Work has also been done for modeling human intervention techniques for containing and/or reducing soil contaminantion (NRC, 1994), such as pumping, clean water-air-steam injection, soil heating, surfactants, biological methods, etc. Finally, much work has also been done on the numerical solution of mathematical models whose complexity does not allow for an analytical solution. Among the dozens of remediation methods which have been proposed and which are strongly dependent on site environmental conditions, biological methods are achieving increasing importance, due to their “naturalness" and their low costs (NRC, 1993) . It has been noticed that soil microorganisms are able to degrade several classes of compounds, in particular those which partition between an aqueous and an organic phase, or sometimes also gaseous phase, for e.g., hydrocarbons, chlorinated compounds, pesticides. These compounds, or better said, their fractions dissolved in water, are liable to be metabolized by subsurface microrganisms which have the capability to degrade the compounds and to transform them into carbon dioxide and/or other compounds, which are less toxic or unnoxious. Several laboratory and field studies have been conducted for assessing and evaluating the capability and the limits of soil microorganisms to degrade several classes of contaminants (Mayer et al., 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997) . Much work has also been devoted to modeling biodegration of groundwater contaminants. The outline of this report is as follows: section 2 gives a brief description of the characteristics and properties of NAPLs, including a review of the literature with regards to formulations and modeling; section 3 discusses biodegradation of contaminants and past efforts at modeling biodegradation; section 4 surveys specific remediation technologies and experiences; and section 5 discusses open issues for further research. In the final section possible lines of research for the second phase of the PhD program are indicated

Time-lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography for mapping in situ smouldering remediation (STAR)

Time-lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), a surface geophysical technique, was applied for the first time to monitor the first full-scale application of Self-sustaining Treatment for Active Remediation (STAR) at a coal tar contaminated site. STAR is a self-sustaining smouldering technology that destroys contaminants in situ by combustion, generating heat, water, and combustion gases. ERT is used as a complementary source of information to support conventional temperature and gas concentration data collected during STAR operations. A shallow (2.4 mbgs) and a deep (7.8 mbgs) treatment cell were monitored, with 2D surface resistivity surveys conducted before, during and after treatment. Two 36 electrodes lines were installed in each cell, with 21 meters of extension in the shallow and 42 meters in the deep cell. In the shallow cell, ERT identified a specific electrical resistivity signal based on temperature and water saturation changes to map the suspected coal tar treatment zones. In both cells, air/gas distribution was observed, as was the capture zone of the vapor extraction system and the re-infiltration of groundwater after treatment. The average subsurface resistivity presented the same trends as other measures of treatment, such as the total amount of combustion gases collected. Overall, the resistivity surveys provided continuous mapping of the subsurface, and showed that ERT is promising for evaluating thermal remediation field applications such as in situ STAR. This study represents the first time that in situ DNAPL remediation was mapped with ERT

Experimental Studies Focused on the Pore-Scale Aspects of Heavy Oil and Bitumen Recovery Using the Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) and Solvent-Aided SAGD (SA-SAGD) Recovery Processes

Increasing energy consumption and continuous depletion of hydrocarbon reservoirs will result in a conventional oil production peak in the near future. Thus, the gap between the global conventional oil supplies and the required amount of fossil fuel energy will grow. Extensive attempts were made during the last three decades to fill this gap, especially using innovative emerging heavy oil and bitumen production technologies. Most of these recovery methods have been developed in Canada, considering the fact that Canada and Venezuela have the largest deposits of heavy oil and bitumen throughout the world. The horizontal well drilling technology opened a new horizon for the recovery of heavy oil and bitumen. Most of the in-situ recovery techniques, including Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) recovery method, take advantage of horizontal injection and production wells. The vacated pores in the reservoir are filled mainly either with steam or with a mixture of steam and solvent vapour in the case of the SAGD and Solvent Aided SAGD (SA-SAGD) recovery methods, respectively. The use of long horizontal wells combined with the reduced viscosity of the produced oil allows economic production with limited amount of bypassed residual oil in the invaded region. The macro-scale success of the SAGD recovery technique is greatly affected by its pore-scale performance. It is beneficial to understand the pore-level physics of the SAGD process in order to develop mathematical models for simulating field-scale performance. Available commercial reservoir simulators cannot describe pore-level mechanisms of the SAGD process including mechanisms related to the fluid-flow as well as heat-transfer aspects of the process. A systematic series of flow visualization experiments of the SAGD process using glass-etched micromodels was developed to capture the pore-level physics of the process using qualitative analysis. With the aid of image processing techniques, the pore-scale performance of the SAGD process was qualitatively and quantitatively investigated. The main objective of Chapter 2 of this thesis is to address the relevant pore-scale mechanisms responsible for the in-situ oil mobilization and drainage in a conventional SAGD process. Transport processes, occurred in a conventional SAGD process at the pore-level including fluid flow and heat transfer aspects, were mechanistically investigated and documented. The qualitative analysis of the results revealed that near a well-established oil-steam interface, gravity drainage takes place through a thick layer of pores, composed of about 1-6 pores in thickness, within the mobilized region. The drainage of the mobile oil takes place due to the interplay between gravity and capillarity forces near this mobilized region. In-situ mobilization of bitumen was found to be as a result of both conductive and convective elements of the local heat transfer process. Moreover, the phenomenon of water-in-oil emulsification at the interface was also demonstrated which is due to the local steam condensation and spreading characteristics of water droplets over the oil phase in the presence of a gas phase. Other pore-scale aspects of the process such as drainage displacement as well as film-flow drainage mechanisms of the mobile oil, localized entrapment of steam bubbles as well as condensate droplets within the mobile oil continuum due to capillarity phenomenon, sharp temperature gradient along the mobilized region, co-current and counter-current flow regimes at the chamber walls, condensate spontaneous imbibition followed by mobile oil drainage, and snap-off of liquid films are also illustrated using these pore-level studies. The second objective of Chapter 2 is to quantitatively analyze the production performance of the SAGD process based on the micro-scale measurements. Our pore-scale experiments revealed that the rate of pore-scale SAGD interface advancement depends directly on the pore-scale characteristics of the employed models and the pertaining operating conditions. The average sweep rate data were correlated using an analytical model proposed by Butler (1979, 1981, 1991) and a pore-scale performance parameter was defined for the SAGD process. The measured horizontal sweep rates of the SAGD process at the pore-scale are in good agreement with the theory predictions provided by the performance parameter. In addition, the effect of different system variables on the ultimate recovery factor of the SAGD experiments were investigated and it was found that higher permeability values and lower in-situ oil viscosities lead to higher ultimate recovery factor values for a particular SAGD trial. Moreover, the Cumulative Steam to Oil Ratio (CSOR) data were scaled and a reasonably good fit for the experimental data was achieved by defining a scaling parameter. Although the SAGD process offers several inherent advantages including high ultimate recovery, stable oil production rates, reasonable energy efficiency, and high stable sweep efficiency, there are some drawbacks associated with the SAGD process such as high energy consumption, high levels of CO2 emission, and usage of large quantities of fresh water which make this process uneconomical in reservoirs with thin net pay, low matrix porosity and thermal conductivity, and low initial pressure. The most promising route for improving the SAGD performance appears to be the co-injection of a light hydrocarbon solvent with steam in the context of the Solvent Aided SAGD (SA-SAGD) process. The pore-level aspects of the SA-SAGD process are not yet understood to the extent of incorporating the pore-scale physics into mathematical models. The main objective of Chapter 3 of my thesis is to mechanistically investigate the SA-SAGD process at the pore-level to enlighten the unrecognized pore-scale physics of the process. A methodical set of pore-scale SA-SAGD experiments were designed and carried out with the aid of glass micromodels. The methodology used in this set of the SA-SAGD trials was similar to that of the pore-scale SAGD experiments described in Chapter 2. Normal Pentane and Normal Hexane were used as the steam additives. The pore-level events were recorded on a real-time basis and then analyzed using the image processing techniques. According to the qualitative results, it was obtained that all the condensate and gaseous phases flow simultaneously in the mobilized region composed of about 1-4 pores in thickness. Heat transfer mechanisms at the pore-scale include conduction as well as convection. The mechanisms responsible for the mass transfer at the pore-level include molecular diffusion as well as convection. The mobile oil drains as a result of two active mechanisms of film flow as well as direct capillary drainage displacements at the pore-scale. Due to the near miscible nature of the displacement process, the residual oil left behind in the invaded portion of the micromodels was negligible and asphaltene precipitation and plugging was found to be a temporary phenomenon. The second objective of Chapter 3 is to quantify the pore-scale production performance of the SA-SAGD process using the flow visualization experiments. The horizontal SA-SAGD interface advancement velocity was chosen to be the indicator of the pore-scale performance of the process. It was found that addition of n-C6 as the steam additive was more effective than n-C5 in terms of enhanced pore-scale interface advancement as well as achieving higher ultimate recovery factor when all the other experimental variables are unchanged. The higher the solvent concentration in the injection mainstream is, the higher would be the pore-scale sweep rate as well as the ultimate recovery factor of the process. When oil type with lower in-situ viscosity was used, higher sweep rates as well as higher ultimate recovery factors values were achieved compared to the trials in which the more viscous bitumen was employed as the oil type. In addition, a scaling parameter composed of porous media properties was found by which the pore-scale interface advancement velocity and the ultimate recovery factor of the SA-SAGD trials were scaled when all other experimental variables remain unchanged. In Chapter 4 of this thesis, the production performance of the SAGD and SA-SAGD processes were demonstrated and compared at the macro-scale under controlled environmental conditions. A 2D physical model was designed and fabricated and Athabasca bitumen was used as the oil type. According to the experimental results, it was obtained that the average mobile oil as well as dead oil production rates are reasonably constant over the course of the SAGD and SA-SAGD trials. As far as the SAGD experiments are concerned, there is a linear correlation between the mobile oil production rates and the square root of the porous media permeability when all the other experimental variables remain unchanged. In addition, the Steam to Oil Ratio (SOR) values of the SAGD trials correlate reasonably well with the inverse of the square root of permeability when all the other experimental variables are fixed. By introducing the solvent additive to the injection mainstream of the SAGD process, it was found that enhancements of about 18% and 17% were observed in the mobile oil and dead oil production rates of the SAGD process respectively. In addition, the SOR values of the SA-SAGD process was reduced by about 35% compared to that of the SAGD process. Finally, an advanced photomicrography unit with an integrated image processing software was used in order to investigate size of the enclosed water condensate droplets in the continuum of the mobile oil produced during the course of the SAGD and SA-SAGD experiments. The captured microscopic snapshots were analyzed using the image processing techniques and some representative average values of the water condensate droplet sizes were reported for the corresponding SAGD and SA-SAGD trials

Data Analytics Techniques for Performance Prediction of Steamflooding in Naturally Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs

Thermal oil recovery techniques, including steam processes, account for more than 80% of the current global heavy oil, extra heavy oil, and bitumen production. Evaluation of Naturally Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs (NFCRs) for thermal heavy oil recovery using field pilot tests and exhaustive numerical and analytical modeling is expensive, complex, and personnel-intensive. Robust statistical models have not yet been proposed to predict cumulative steam to oil ratio (CSOR) and recovery factor (RF) during steamflooding in NFCRs as strong process performance indicators. In this paper, new statistical based techniques were developed using multivariable regression analysis for quick estimation of CSOR and RF in NFCRs subjected to steamflooding. The proposed data based models include vital parameters such as in situ fluid and reservoir properties. The data used are taken from experimental studies and rare field trials of vertical well steamflooding pilots in heavy oil NFCRs reported in the literature. The models show an average error of <6% for the worst cases and contain fewer empirical constants compared with existing correlations developed originally for oil sands. The interactions between the parameters were considered indicating that the initial oil saturation and oil viscosity are the most important predictive factors. The proposed models were successfully predicted CSOR and RF for two heavy oil NFCRs. Results of this study can be used for feasibility assessment of steam flooding in NFCRs..