Damage Mechanisms in Tapered Composite Structures Under Static and Fatigue Loading

In this work an integrated computational/experimental approach was developed to validate the predictive capabilities of State-of-the-Art (SoA) Progressive Damage Analysis (PDA) methods and tools. Specifically, a tapered composite structure incorporating ply-drops typical in the aerospace industry to spatially vary structural thickness was tested under static tension and cyclic tension fatigue loads. The data acquired from these tests included quantitative metrics such as pre-peak stiffness, peak load, location of delamination damage onset, and growth of delaminations as functions of applied static and fatigue loads. It was shown that the PDA tools were able to predict the pre-peak stiffness and peak load within 10% of experimental average, thereby meeting and exceeding the pre-defined success criteria. Additionally, it was shown that the PDA tools were able to accurately predict the location of delamination onset and satisfactorily predict delamination growth under static tension loading. Overall, good correlations were achieved between modeling and experiments

Ultrasonic Spot Welding of Dissimilar Metal Sheets: An Experimental, Numerical and Metallurgical Investigation

Ultrasonic metal welding (USMW) is a new and emerging concept used in the industries over the past twenty years and serving to the manufacturing sectors like aviation, medical, microelectronics, automotive and much more due to various hurdles faced by conventional fusion welding process. USMW is a clean and reliable technique in which the welding takes place with a high energy, no flux or filler metal needed, longer tool life and it takes very short time (less than one second) to weld materials in a perfect controllable environment with greater efficiency.To acquire high vibration amplitude in USMW, there is a necessity to design a welding system that consists of components like a booster and horn. The principal purpose of these parts is to amplify the input amplitude of vibration so that the energy transferred to the welding spot should be sufficient for creating a joint. In the present study, new type of booster and horn are proposed and modelled with adequate precision not only to produce high-quality welds but also to solve a lot of issues faced while designing these types of ultrasonic tools. The modal analysis module of finite element method (FEM) is used to analyze the effects of different step lengths and fillet radius on its natural frequency of 20 kHz, ensuring that these components will be in a resonating condition with other parts of the system. It is found that there were 1.11 % and 2.52 % errors in the length calculation of both parts. Similarly, 0.61 % error is obtained for both while calculating the magnification ratio. However, such low levels of errors may be considered to be insignificant. The dynamic analysis has also been performed to find out the stress distribution in both parts under cyclic loading conditions. Due to these cyclic loading conditions, the nodal regions (hot areas) are under highly stressed, and the relevant temperature field is consequently determined. The results obtained from the simulation, and experimental results were found to be close to each other and an error of 2% was noticed. Other welding components are also fabricated such as anvil, specimen-holder and backing plate for producing a satisfactory weld. Meanwhile, the complex mechanism behind the USMW has been addressed and modelled analytically. This model can predict the forces as well as temperatures those occur during the welding process and also explains the effects of various material properties and surface conditions on the weld behaviour. The experiments have been performed on the aluminium, copper, brass and stainless steel metal sheets with a number of different configurations, anvil designs, and surface conditions. The fundamental aspect of this study is to control the process parameters like vibration amplitude, weld pressure and weld time so that, an appreciable weld strength can be obtained. Thus, tensile shear and T-peel failure load studies suggest that increase in vibration amplitude means the increase of scrubbing action between the faying surfaces, resulting a better bonding strength. Similarly, increase in weld pressure also increases these weld failure loads and reach a peak value at a particular pressure. But, subsequently, these failure loads decrease due to suppression of relative motion between sheets and initiation of cracks. Excessive weld time also causes cracks around the weld spot. Likewise, if the thickness of the sheets increased, weld strengths are also increased due to absorption of more amount of ultrasonic energy. Moreover, the highest weld interface temperatures and weld areas are observed at the end of weld time because of the larger plastic deformation at the mating surfaces. For all the experiments, first anvil design shows maximum failure loads due to its non-cutting width and angle of knurls. Likewise, on the increase of surface roughness, the tensile shear, and T-peel failure loads decrease. It is found that, in lubricating condition, the highest failure loads are obtained. Furthermore, the polynomial regression, artificial neural network (ANN) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) methods are developed and compared for each performance measure so that the whole welding process can be accurately described by a best predictive model. A welding mechanics based numerical model has been developed which can predict the temperatures during USMW process for various surface conditions. For all the experimental investigations, the predictive results show good agreement with the experimental values. In addition to it, acoustic softening during ultrasonic welding is found to very significant for the reduction in yield strength of the weld material up to 95 %. It is seen that the quality of welding depends on the material properties, process parameters, and thickness of the workpiece. The present investigation also explains in details the effect of process parameters on the responses through metallurgical analysis. A quality lobe of welding like “under weld”, “good weld” and “over weld” is proposed after observing the fractured samples in optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Meantime, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X- ray diffraction (XRD) analyses are also used to reveal the thickness of interatomic diffusion and IMCs along the weld interface

Subject-specific finite element modelling of the human hand complex : muscle-driven simulations and experimental validation

This paper aims to develop and validate a subject-specific framework for modelling the human hand. This was achieved by combining medical image-based finite element modelling, individualized muscle force and kinematic measurements. Firstly, a subject-specific human hand finite element (FE) model was developed. The geometries of the phalanges, carpal bones, wrist bones, ligaments, tendons, subcutaneous tissue and skin were all included. The material properties were derived from in-vivo and in-vitro experiment results available in the literature. The boundary and loading conditions were defined based on the kinematic data and muscle forces of a specific subject captured from the in-vivo grasping tests. The predicted contact pressure and contact area were in good agreement with the in-vivo test results of the same subject, with the relative errors for the contact pressures all being below 20%. Finally, sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the effects of important modelling parameters on the predictions. The results showed that contact pressure and area were sensitive to the material properties and muscle forces. This FE human hand model can be used to make a detailed and quantitative evaluation into biomechanical and neurophysiological aspects of human hand contact during daily perception and manipulation. The findings can be applied to the design of the bionic hands or neuro-prosthetics in the future

Identification of the Elastic Modulus of an Organ Model Using Reactive Force and Ultrasound Image

制度:新 ; 報告番号:甲3418号 ; 学位の種類:博士(工学) ; 授与年月日:2011/7/28 ; 早大学位記番号:新574

A Review of Prosthetic Interface Stress Investigations

Over the last decade, numerous experimental and numerical analyses have been conducted to investigate the stress distribution between the residual limb and prosthetic socket of persons with lower limb amputation. The objectives of these analyses have been to improve our understanding of the residual limb/prosthetic socket system, to evaluate the influence of prosthetic design parameters and alignment variations on the interface stress distribution, and to evaluate prosthetic fit. The purpose of this paper is to summarize these experimental investigations and identify associated limitations. In addition, this paper presents an overview of various computer models used to investigate the residual limb interface, and discusses the differences and potential ramifications of the various modeling formulations. Finally, the potential and future applications of these experimental and numerical analyses in prosthetic design are presented

Out-of-plane fiber waviness in composite materials: origins, detection and mechanical evaluation

Out-of-plane fiber waviness, also referred to as wrinkling, is considered one of the most significant effects that occur in composite materials. It significantly affects mechanical properties, such as stiffness, strength and fatigue and, therefore, dramatically reduces the load carrying capacity of the material. Fiber waviness is inherent to various manufacturing processes of fiber-reinforced composite parts. They cannot be completely avoided and thus have to be tolerated and considered as an integral part of the structure. Because of this influenceable but in many cases unavoidable nature of fiber waviness, it might be more appropriate to consider fiber waviness as effects or features rather than defects. Hence, it is important to understand the impact of different process parameters on the formation of fiber waviness in order to reduce or, in the best case, completely avoid them as early as possible in the product and process development phases. Mostly depending on the chosen geometry of the part and the specific manufacturing process used, different types of fiber waviness result. Fiber-reinforced composite materials allow for a significant mass reduction due to the comparably low density (c.f. 4-5 times less than steel) and, in addition, fibers can be aligned in accordance with the load paths. This possibility of alignment allows the fibers to be placed at the exact position where they are needed to provide the component with the required stiffness and strength. However, this can lead to a load path-optimized composite structure, which is not necessarily easy to produce and free of defects. The placement of the fibers or semi-finished textile products is still often carried out by hand-lay-up, especially in the aviation industry. This allows a diverse draping of the unidirectional (UD) layers, woven textiles or non-crimped fabrics (NCF) onto the production tool. However, manufacturing effects such as fiber waviness, porosity, delamination and distortion cannot be completely avoided. The increased demand for composite components and their production process stability for the aviation and automotive industries requires a transition to at least partially automated manufacturing processes. Those systems come with a higher deposition rate and ensure reproducible quality, but also imply production effects, e.g. fiber waviness. This necessitates a sophisticated understanding of those implicit effects on the mechanical properties of the manufactured structure. The decision as to whether these unwanted irregularities are considered as manufacturing features (effects), or as defects, depends on the size, number and location in the component. Those allowance limits depend on the strength and stiffness reserve at the location of the feature, as well as on functional requirements, e.g. water tightness. The assessment of manufacturing effects further depends on the industry. In the aviation industry, the allowance limits for defects are very restricted, while in the automotive industry the need for short cycle times leads to a trade-off between robust processes and tolerated manufacturing imperfections. To this point, there is still no generally accepted approach to quantitatively support accept/reject/repair-decisions and make a consistent assessment of wavy layers in composites. If the effect is termed to be a defect, typically a deviation from design must be requested in the aviation industry and an individual decision must be made on "use as is", repair or reject entirely. In some cases, experiments on representative test samples are performed at the subcomponent-level on a statistical basis. However, this is both time consuming and cost intensive. It is necessary to strive for a fiber-oriented and in particular a manufacturing-oriented design and construction of composite components. Towards this goal, design and production engineers aim to expand the permissible margin of safety by assessing the effect on stiffness and strength of those production effects, i.e. fiber waviness, porosity, delamination etc. Additionally, they aim to reduce or, in the best case, avoid them on the process side, increasingly with the help of finite element based process simulations. In this thesis, numerous mechanisms of wrinkling were analyzed, leading to several recommendations to prevent wrinkle formation not only during composite processing, but also at an earlier design stage, where generally several influencing factors are defined. Based on that, an overview of typically occurring wave shapes is presented and a classification scheme based on ten characteristic features is suggested for categorization purposes. The assessment of out-of-plane fiber waviness in composite materials is strongly dependent on the accuracy of detection and quantification of the wave parameters such as amplitude, wavelength and position in the laminate. In the aviation industry, ultrasonic testing (UT) is the preferred method for the evaluation of composite materials. The evaluation of the ultrasound signal from different manufacturing effects is difficult and it often cannot be clearly determined whether there are actually wavy regions in the laminate or not. In this thesis, different non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, such as infrared thermography (IRT), digital shearography, eddy current testing (ET) and X-ray computed tomography (CT) have been used to assess their potential for the detection and characterization of embedded out-of-plane fiber waviness in composite materials. These methods were applied on test plates with artificially embedded waviness with varying amplitudes, wavelengths and positions in the laminate and evaluated with respect to their ability of detecting the wrinkle morphology. The experimental non-destructive procedures of infrared thermography and digital shearography were simulated using the Finite Element Method (FEM) to gain a deeper understanding on the influence of fiber waviness on the measured results. To understand the complex failure behaviour of composite materials containing out-of-plane fiber waviness under compressive and tensile loading, numerous experimental tests have been carried out. Digital image correlation (DIC), passive thermography (IRT) and acoustic emission (AE) test methods have been used to investigate damage initiation and propagation on specimen level. In addition to that, an extensive material characterization on planar specimens was also performed. Composite materials exposed to harsh environmental conditions, i.e. hot-wet, show considerably reduced mechanical properties, governed by a degrading matrix. To investigate the effect of fiber waviness on the mechanical properties at both room temperature and after 12 months hot-wet conditioning at 70°C and 85% relative humidity, mechanical tests (compressive and tensile loading) were conducted. The basic strategies for the assessment of fiber waviness are briefly described. In engineering practice several approaches are used, i.e. empirical, generic, and semi-empirical. These include experimentally obtained knockdown factors, simplified simulations or extensive testing on subcomponent level, both experimentally and numerically. A developed micromechanical model is implemented in a MATLAB GUI to determine the effective elastic properties as well as the resulting complex stress state of uniform and graded fiber waviness. The well-established Puck failure criterion was implemented and applied on the calculated stresses to predict local ply failure and determine the strength of wavy plies. The mechanical behavior of out-of-plane fiber waviness is investigated for both unidirectional and quasi-isotropic laminates by numerically simulating damage initiation and propagation. A nonlinear material model was implemented in ABAQUS/Explicit as a material user-subroutine, which is able to capture the material behavior including shear nonlinearities, failure initiation and propagation in unidirectional laminates reasonably accurate

Biomechanical Modeling and Inverse Problem Based Elasticity Imaging for Prostate Cancer Diagnosis

Early detection of prostate cancer plays an important role in successful prostate cancer treatment. This requires screening the prostate periodically after the age of 50. If screening tests lead to prostate cancer suspicion, prostate needle biopsy is administered which is still considered as the clinical gold standard for prostate cancer diagnosis. Given that needle biopsy is invasive and is associated with issues including discomfort and infection, it is desirable to develop a prostate cancer diagnosis system that has high sensitivity and specificity for early detection with a potential to improve needle biopsy outcome. Given the complexity and variability of prostate cancer pathologies, many research groups have been pursuing multi-parametric imaging approach as no single modality imaging technique has proven to be adequate. While imaging additional tissue properties increases the chance of reliable prostate cancer detection and diagnosis, selecting an additional property needs to be done carefully by considering clinical acceptability and cost. Clinical acceptability entails ease with respect to both operating by the radiologist and patient comfort. In this work, effective tissue biomechanics based diagnostic techniques are proposed for prostate cancer assessment with the aim of early detection and minimizing the numbers of prostate biopsies. The techniques take advantage of the low cost, widely available and well established TRUS imaging method. The proposed techniques include novel elastography methods which were formulated based on an inverse finite element frame work. Conventional finite element analysis is known to have high computational complexity, hence computation time demanding. This renders the proposed elastography methods not suitable for real-time applications. To address this issue, an accelerated finite element method was proposed which proved to be suitable for prostate elasticity reconstruction. In this method, accurate finite element analysis of a large number of prostates undergoing TRUS probe loadings was performed. Geometry input and displacement and stress fields output obtained from the analysis were used to train a neural network mapping function to be used for elastopgraphy imaging of prostate cancer patients. The last part of the research presented in this thesis tackles an issue with the current 3D TRUS prostate needle biopsy. Current 3D TRUS prostate needle biopsy systems require registering preoperative 3D TRUS to intra-operative 2D TRUS images. Such image registration is time-consuming while its real-time implementation is yet to be developed. To bypass this registration step, concept of a robotic system was proposed which can reliably determine the preoperative TRUS probe position relative to the prostate to place at the same position relative to the prostate intra-operatively. For this purpose, a contact pressure feedback system is proposed to ensure similar prostate deformation during 3D and 2D image acquisition in order to bypass the registration step

Magnetic resonance elastography: design and implementation as a clinical tool

Tese de mestrado integrado em, Engenharia Biomédica e Biofísica (Radiações em Diagnóstico e Terapia) apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa, através da Faculdade de Ciências, 2012A viscoelasticidade é uma propriedade física dos tecidos, que se altera quando estes sofrem modificações. Desta forma, esta característica é uma propriedade importante no diagnóstico de doenças que alteram as capacidades elásticas dos tecidos. A palpação manual é uma técnica milenar que é geralmente utilizada para identificar lesões, como por exemplo nódulos e quistos. No entanto, esta técnica depende fortemente da experiência do médico e da região onde se encontra a lesão. Deste modo, na última década tem havido um esforço acrescido para serem desenvolvidas novas técnicas de imagem médica que forneçam informação sobre a elasticidade dos tecidos de uma forma quantitativa. Surge assim a elastografia. Esta técnica é baseada na detecção da deformação do tecido provocada por stresses internos ou externos e tem sido fortemente utilizada, combinada com outras técnicas como a ultrassonografia e a ressonância magnética, no diagnóstico de doenças que influenciam as propriedades elásticas dos tecidos. Inicialmente, a técnica de elastografia começou por ser combinada apenas com ultrassons. Porém, esta técnica apresenta algumas desvantagens devido à sua baixa resolução espacial e devido a apresentar resultados apenas na direcção de propagação da onda. Estas limitações têm servido de incentivo à exploração de técnicas alternativas, como a Elastografia por Ressonância Magnética (MRE, do inglês “Magnetic Resonance Elastography”) e à sua aplicação ao diagnóstico de doenças como a cirrose hepática ou a detecção de tumores. A MRE é uma técnica não invasiva, capaz de detectar a propagação de ondas em tecidos sujeitos a estimulação mecânica, permitindo assim o cálculo do módulo de elasticidade dos tecidos in vivo. Nesta nova modalidade, é usado um sistema convencional de ressonância magnética, em simultâneo com um sistema de actuação que provoca vibrações no tecido de interesse. De modo a que seja possível medir o deslocamento sofrido pelos spins em movimento devido à vibração induzida, é adicionado um gradiente sensível ao movimento (MEG, do inglês “Motion Encoding Gradient”) a uma simples sequência spin-echo EPI. Por fim, esta técnica usa um algoritmo de inversão que se baseia nos deslocamentos medidos, para calcular os mapas de elasticidade do tecido de interesse. O desenvolvimento de equipamentos para MRE representa um desafio devido às inúmeras considerações e limitações que é necessário ter em conta. Por exemplo, o hardware tem de possuir um design que permita uma excitação mecânica dos tecidos, adequada, dentro do campo magnético do equipamento de ressonância magnética e tem de ser confortável para o sujeito que está a ser submetido ao exame. Por outro lado, a optimização dos procedimentos de análise de dados é também uma questão crucial. É no âmbito do desenvolvimento de novas técnicas, métodos e equipamentos de MRE que surge o presente projecto. Este projecto foi desenvolvido no Wolfson Brain Imaging Center (WBIC), no Hospital de Addenbrooke’s, em Cambridge, e teve como objectivos o melhoramento de vários aspectos relacionados com o equipamento e os métodos de aquisição de imagens de um sistema de MRE de aquisição recente no WBIC. Estes melhoramentos traduziram-se em alterações ao nível do hardware e do software. Ao longo dos anos têm sido desenvolvidos vários tipos de actuadores que permitem a excitação dos tecidos. Entre os mais usados estão os actuadores piezoeléctricos, os actuadores pneumáticos e os actuadores electromagnéticos. O actuador piezoeléctrico, produzido pelo grupo do Charité do Instituto de Informática Médica, da Universidade de Berlim, e adquirido pelo WBIC possui dois tipos de set-up; um para a excitação do cérebro e um para a excitação do fígado. Com vista a ter uma perspectiva geral das vantagens e desvantagens dos actuadores piezoeléctricos e dos actuadores pneumáticos, as características de cada um destes, foram criteriosamente estudadas, o que permitiu melhorar e optimizar o actuador piezoeléctrico. Assim, algumas das alterações que foram efectuadas neste sistema foram: alteração da head cradle (set-up do cérebro) para aumentar o conforto do paciente e a eficiência, e a alteração do controlo remoto do amplificador e gerador de ondas, de modo a não ser necessário o deslocamento do técnico na modificação dos parâmetros de MRE. De modo a poder comparar os dois tipos de actuação nos tecidos, foi também um dos objectivos deste projecto desenvolver um sistema pneumático e comparar a sua performance com o equipamento piezoeléctrico comercial desenvolvido pela Mayo-Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, e com o actuador piezoeléctrico do WBIC. Com esse fim, foi desenvolvido um actuador pneumático de raiz, a custo reduzido, e o seu desempenho foi avaliado. Para comparar os dois tipos de actuação, efectuaram-se testes de deflexão de movimento num fantoma de gelatina, através do uso de um acelerómetro comercial, para várias frequências de excitação. Três sistemas diferentes foram testados: o piezoeléctrico e dois sistemas pneumáticos: entre eles o actuador desenvolvido no WBIC e o actuador pneumático comercial, desenvolvido na clínica Mayo. A utilização de dois tipos de actuadores pneumáticos permitiu testar se a propagação da onda nos tecidos depende somente do tipo de actuação utilizada (se é através de um actuador pneumático ou piezoeléctrico) ou se está também relacionada com características específicas de hardware de cada actuador. Com este estudo concluiu-se que, tal como seria esperado, o set-up desenhado para o fígado, do actuador piezoeléctrico, induziu um maior deslocamento nos tecidos do que qualquer um dos outros actuadores, quer para baixas frequências (20Hz), quer para altas frequências (80-100 Hz). No entanto, o set-up pneumático da Clínica Mayo induziu um maior deslocamento no fantoma do que o actuador piezoeléctrico para frequências entre os 30 e os 50 Hz. Estes resultados comprovaram a consistência e reprodutibilidade do actuador piezoeléctrico, bem como a sua precisão e controlo para altas frequências. O actuador pneumático desenvolvido no WBIC provou ter pouca potência e induziu um pequeno deslocamento no material comparativamente com os outros actuadores. Contudo, este sistema é de fácil aplicação e introdução no ambiente e na sala de Ressonância Magnética, a custo reduzido. O módulo de elasticidade para um fantoma de gelatina, para o fígado e para o cérebro, foi também calculado através de MRE, quer com o actuador piezoeléctrico quer com o actuador pneumático desenvolvido no WBIC. Concluiu-se que, apesar das desvantagens do actuador pneumático desenvolvido no WBIC, obtiveram-se valores de elasticidade, com este actuador, consistentes e na mesma ordem de grandeza que os valores obtidos com o actuador piezoeléctrico. A literatura de MRE apresenta contradições em diversos estudos, sendo indicados diferentes valores do módulo da elasticidade para o mesmo tecido. Esta incongruência é em parte devida à grande variedade de parâmetros que influencia os resultados de MRE e às condicionantes e limitações do hardware. Desta forma, torna-se essencial a utilização de métodos de validação desta nova modalidade de diagnóstico médico. Neste projecto, foram utilizados modelos de elementos finitos (FEM, do inglês “Finite Element Modelling”) e foi efectuada uma análise dinâmica da elasticidade (DST, do inglês “Dynamic Shear Testing”) de modo a validar os resultados obtidos experimentalmente pela MRE. Identificaram-se dois tipos de parâmetros que influenciam os resultados de MRE: os parâmetros puramente computacionais e os parâmetros experimentais. A validação através de FEMs foi dividida em dois estudos principais: um primeiro estudo que examinou a influência dos parâmetros puramente computacionais e um segundo estudo que examinou a influência dos parâmetros experimentais nos resultados. Em ambos os estudos, desenvolveram-se modelos simétricos relativamente a um eixo e rectangulares prismáticos que representam uma secção semi-axial de um fantoma de gelatina cilíndrico. A face inferior dos modelos foi restringida na direcção y e aplicou-se uma análise dinâmica transiente. O primeiro estudo de FEMs efectuado teve como principal objectivo estudar a influência dos parâmetros puramente computacionais e tentar eliminar a sua influência nos resultados obtidos pelos FEMs. Neste estudo, as condições de fronteira (BC: do inglês “Boundary Conditions”) e a densidade da malha de elementos finitos foram alterados. Para estudar as BC, foram criados dois modelos com dimensões diferentes (100x10 mm e 100x20 mm) e concluiu-se que o modelo com espessura de 20 mm apresentou resultados mais próximos da curva teórica do comprimento de onda em função do módulo de Young. Para estudar a densidade da malha de elementos finitos, foram também criados dois modelos com elementos de dimensões diferentes (1x1 mm e 2x2 mm). As imagens de propagação da onda, ao longo da direcção x do modelo, e o respectivo perfil de deslocamento ao longo da mesma direcção da face superior do fantoma, revelaram que o modelo com elementos de dimensões 2x2mm não foi capaz de detectar a propagação da onda, ao contrário do que aconteceu com o modelo com elementos de dimensões 1x1 mm. Este estudo comprovou a importância da escolha criteriosa quer das condições de fronteira, quer da densidade da malha na criação de modelos finitos, e mostrou que os resultados sofrem modificações importantes aquando da modificação destes dois parâmetros. As conclusões obtidas neste estudo foram aplicadas no segundo estudo com FEMs de modo a eliminar a influência dos parâmetros computacionais. O segundo estudo de FEMs teve como principal objectivo estudar a influência dos parâmetros experimentais, como por exemplo a densidade do material. Para tal, foram criados modelos com diferentes densidades e módulos de Young. Com este estudo, concluiu-se que a propagação da onda nos tecidos (modelo de FEMs) e o correspondente comprimento de onda variam bastante consoante a densidade dos tecidos. Constatou-se que os resultados obtidos para o modelo com densidade de 1kg/mm3 foram os que mais se aproximaram da curva teórica. Por fim, concluiu-se que a densidade dos tecidos altera grandemente os resultados obtidos. A validação através da DST permitiu comparar os resultados obtidos através de MRE com os resultados obtidos através desta técnica de validação, para amostras de três fantomas de gelatina com diferentes concentrações. A análise dinâmica da elasticidade já provou ser, em estudos anteriores, uma técnica capaz de medir o módulo de elasticidade dos tecidos de forma precisa e viável, apesar das suas limitações na vibração a elevadas frequências (frequências em que a MRE opera). Com ambas as técnicas (MRE e DST), obtiveram-se resultados do módulo da elasticidade com a mesma ordem de magnitude. No entanto, com MRE os valores obtidos foram significativamente mais elevados para os três fantomas de concentração de gel diferente. Este resultado deve-se à dependência de ambas as técnicas, relativamente a factores que dificilmente podem ser controlados, como sejam: a espessura das amostras e a sua não uniformidade no caso da DST; e, no caso da MRE, todos os parâmetros que foram descritos e avaliados ao longo deste projecto como as limitações do hardware e possíveis erros induzidos pelo algoritmo de inversão. Em suma, é importante realçar a importância que este projecto teve no desenvolvimento da técnica de MRE no WBIC. É ainda de salientar que este trabalho representou um passo adicional no caminho da aprovação do projecto de MRE na prática clínica, pelo comité ético do hospital de Addenbrooke’s, e uma contribuição para a aceitação desta técnica como método de diagnóstico em meio clínico.Palpation has been used for centuries to detect changes in elasticity in several body regions. However, this technique is clearly limited to regions that are accessible to physician’s hands. Therefore, over the last decades there has been an attempt to develop methods for imaging tissue stiffness that are not hindered by this limitation, such as Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE). MRE is a non-invasive technique that can directly measure propagating strain waves due to harmonic mechanical excitation, hence allowing for the in vivo computation of the shear modulus of tissues. One main issue with MRE is the design of an actuation system that enables adequate mechanical excitation within the magnetic field of the magnetic resonance scanner. Pneumatic, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric actuation systems have been employed for MRE examinations of the brain, and abdominal organs such as the liver. One of the goals of the current project was the comparison between the setup already in use at the host laboratory (based on a piezoelectric actuator, connected to a wave generator and a high voltage amplifier), a custom-made pneumatic device developed from scratch during the project and a commercial pneumatic actuator developed by Mayo-Clinic. The comparison involved motion deflection tests carried out in a gelatine phantom with a commercial accelerometer, and obtaining elasticity maps of the gelatine phantom, liver and brain. It was shown that the piezoelectric actuator is more powerful and enables a higher degree of control than the pneumatic actuator. Despite the disadvantages of the custom-made pneumatic system presented, shear elasticity measurements obtained with this system were consistent with the values for elasticity obtained with the piezoelectric set-up for phantom and liver experiments. Another goal of the project was the validation and reliability test of MRE results using two different methods: Finite Element Modelling (FEM) and Dynamic Shear Testing (DST). In spite of the frequency limitations inherent to the DST technique, it was concluded that DST results can be extrapolated to higher frequencies and compared with experimental MRE. The results obtained with both techniques showed good agreement, confirming the validity of MRE for measuring tissue elasticity parameters. This project was crucial in the development of the MRE technique at the host institution and represents a step further towards the acceptance of this new and promising diagnostic technique in clinical practice

Novel Ultrasound Elastography Imaging System for Breast Cancer Assessment

Abstract Most conventional methods of breast cancer screening such as X-ray, Ultrasound (US) and MRI have some issues ranging from weaknesses associated with tumour detection or classification to high cost or excessive time of image acquisition and reconstruction. Elastography is a non- invasive technique to visualize suspicious areas in soft tissues such as the breast, prostate and myocardium using tissue stiffness as image contrast mechanism. In this study, a breast Elastography system based on US imaging is proposed. This technique is fast, expected to be cost effective and more sensitive and specific compared to conventional US imaging. Unlike current Elastography techniques that image relative elastic modulus, this technique is capable of imaging absolute Young\u27s modulus (YM). In this technique, tissue displacements and surface forces used to mechanically stimulate the tissue are acquired and used as input to reconstruct the tissue YM distribution. For displacements acquisition, two techniques were used in this research: 1) a modified optical flow technique, which estimates the displacement of each node from US pre- and post-compression images and 2) Radio Frequency (RF) signal cross-correlation technique. In the former, displacements are calculated in 2 dimensions whereas in the latter, displacements are calculated in the US axial direction only. For improving the quality of elastography images, surface force data was used to calculate the stress distribution throughout the organ of interest by using an analytical model and a statistical numerical model. For force data acquisition, a system was developed in which load cells are used to measure forces on the surface of the breast. These forces are input into the stress distribution models to estimate the tissue stress distribution. By combining the stress field with the strain field calculated from the acquired displacements using Hooke\u27s law, the YM can be reconstructed efficiently. To validate the proposed technique, numerical and tissue mimicking phantom studies were conducted. For the numerical phantom study, a 3D breast-shape phantom was created with synthetic US pre- and post-compression images where the results showed the feasibility of reconstructing the absolute value of YM of tumour and background. In the tissue mimicking study, a block shape gelatine- agar phantom was constructed with a cylindrical inclusion. Results obtained from this study also indicated reasonably accurate reconstruction of the YM. The quality of the obtained elasticity images shows that image quality is improved by incorporating the adapted stress calculation techniques. Furthermore, the proposed elastography system is reasonably fast and can be potentially used in real-time clinical applications