Primates in Peril: The world's 25 most endangered primates 2008-2010

Introduction Here we report on the fifth iteration of the biennial listing of a consensus of 25 primate species considered to be amongst the most endangered worldwide and the most in need of urgent conservation measures. The first was drawn up in 2000 by the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, together with Conservation International (Mittermeier et al. 2000). The list was subsequently reviewed and updated in 2002 during an open meeting held during the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society (IPS) in Beijing, China (Mittermeier et al. 2002). That occasion provided for debate among primatologists working in the field who had first-hand knowledge of the causes of threats to primates, both in general and in particular with the species or communities they study. The meeting and the review of the list of the World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates resulted in its official endorsement by the IPS, and became as such a combined endeavor of the Primate Specialist Group, the IPS, and Conservation International. A third revision was carried out at a meeting in August 2004, at the 20th Congress of the IPS in Torino, Italy (Mittermeier et al. 2006). The fourth, covering the biennium 2006–2008, was the result of a meeting held during the 21st Congress of the International Primatological Society (IPS), in Entebbe, Uganda, 26–30 June 2006 (Mittermeier et al. 2007)

Socioecology of Cat Ba Langurs (Trachypithecus poliocephalus): Implications for Conservation

Cat Ba langurs (Trachypithecus poliocephalus), endemic to Cat Ba Island (Vietnam), are a member of the limestone langur group (francoisi species-group) found in Laos, Vietnam, and China. With less than 75 individuals in the world, these Cat Ba langurs are Critically Endangered. This dissertation represents the first long-term behavioural study of the species (549 contact hours across 11 months), and provides socioecological information for two groups (n=17-20) living on the Cua Dong fjord, which can be used in conservation management. Like most other colobines, the majority of the Cat Ba langur diet is leaves (84% of their dietary budget). This may explain their activity budget, which is primarily inactivity (55% of their activity budget), followed by foraging (19%) and social behaviour and locomotion (12% each). Activity and dietary budgets vary seasonally, with animals spending more time in social behaviours in the wet season, when they eat more fruit, and more time in foraging in the dry season, when leaves are ingested more, suggesting they are energy maximisers. In addition, age differences were found, with adults spending the most time in social behaviours and resting. Social behaviour primarily includes grooming and playing with others - play is more common in younger animals, while older animals tend to groom more. Overall, they spend 58% of their days not in proximity to any other langurs. Adult males spend the most time alone, and seem to avoid young langurs. Disputes tend to be between adult females, and two females only tend to come together if there is a young langur acting as a ‘social glue’. Home ranges varied between groups with the larger group’s range being 50ha compared to just 22ha for the smaller group. In both areas, rocks and sparsely covered areas are used most often, which is due to the shrubby, discontinuous vegetation. Most of the langurs’ observable time is spent on exposed slopes (47%), followed by steep cliffs (38%), summits (11%), valleys (3%), and the ground (1%); this varied seasonally, likely to balance foraging needs with thermoregulation. The langurs used 22 sleeping sites, including ledges (61%) and caves (17%). When newborn, Cat Ba langurs are bright orange. They start to lose this natal coat as an infant, and become much darker during the young juvenile stage. As individuals age, they also become more independent and start to forage and locomote more on their own. These reported behaviours can be used to create a baseline for activity budgets, home range size, and habitat use, and development and maturation that can be used for comparative purposes in future studies. Results find that animals are behaviourally similar to other related species and their biggest threat is likely their small, fragmented population structure. To combat this, I support habitat protection, patrols, and enforcement; education and training; habitat corridors; and limiting the human population, as these support an entire ecosystem while teaching locals the importance of biodiversity, reducing resource competition, and fragmentation from infrastructure, and providing a means for the langurs themselves to disperse

The genus category and cranial morphometrics of the Catarrhini with implications for fossil hominins

Recently, the number of hominin genera has increased dramatically. Prior to the announcement of Ardipithecus, only two genera were used by paleoanthropologists: Australopithecus and Homo. Presently, up to eight hominin genera are used: Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Praeanthropus, Kenyanthropus, Paranthropus and Homo. Unlike species concepts, the genus category has not received wide critical examination. To investigate the use of the genus category in paleoanthropology, a comparative framework drawing on morphometric data from a large number of catarrhines is developed. Cranial variables include 36 standard linear measurements from representatives of catarrhine genera across the major tribes/families. This study seeks to assess whether too few or too many hominin genera have been recognized compared with extant catarrhines. Moreover, two published hypotheses about the use of Homo are examined: 1) Wood & Collard's (1999) proposal to transfer Homo habilis/rudolfensis to Australopithecus; and 2) Goodman et al's (1998) classification of both humans and chimpanzees in Homo. To analyze these cranial variables and a number of shape indices calculated from them, as well as to assess competing hypotheses, univariate, bivariate and multivariate statistical approaches are used. The results allow the identification of a set of variables and shape indices which distinguish genera across the catarrhines. Importantly, body size seems to be the major separator of catarrhine genera, reinforcing the idea that they occupy discrete adaptive zones. Moreover, differences between these genera mostly represent contrasts in the size of the neuroversus the viscerocranium. When applied to hominins, a picture emerges which distinguishes them from extant catarrhines: cranial shape rather than size is the major component distinguishing them; this suggests that extinct hominins occupied similar habitats and adaptive zones; variability in size and shape within hominin genera is much lower than extant catarrhines; and the major differences seen in shape among hominins are the result of encephalization in Homo. It is concluded here that both Wood & Collard's (1999) and Goodman et al.'s (1998) proposals appear to be premature. Moreover, while the earliest hominins may be too finely split at the genus level, the evidence for distinction of Australopithecus and Paranthropus is solid

Conservation strategies for Delacour’s langur (Trachypithecus delacouri) in Vietnam: Behavioural comparisons and reviewing a release

Delacour’s langur (Trachypithecus delacouri) is a critically endangered Southeast Asian colobine, found in the karst outcrops of northern Vietnam. Half of the remaining population (estimated at fewer than 200 individuals) resides within Van Long Nature Reserve, Ninh Binh Province. This thesis aims to further the conservation of T. delacouri by reviewing the first release of captive-bred individuals as a potential conservation tool for the species, along with acquiring a greater understanding of the species’ behaviour. Behavioural focal observations were conducted throughout 2011, both on wild groups at Van Long and captive individuals at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center (EPRC) at Cuc Phuong National Park. A group of three individuals was released by the EPRC into Van Long in August 2011 in an aim to connect populations and promote interbreeding, and was tracked using GPS radio collars for a period of up to 13.5 months, with the release then evaluated in line with IUCN reintroduction guidelines. Activity budgets of the wild versus captive T. delacouri populations showed significant differences, although both were in line with typical colobine budgets. Inactivity dominated (wild 75.0%, captive 61.9%), with feeding behaviours also playing a major part (wild 21.3%, captive 29.0%). Sex differences were minimal, but age differences showed that young were more social, and adults spent more time inactive and less time feeding. Both affiliative and antagonistic social interactions were common, with females and young most likely to be involved in affiliative behaviours. Infants showed significant changes in their behaviour as they aged, becoming increasingly social and independent, with allomothering witnessed. Vocalisations were predominantly performed by adult males, with grunts the most common call (61.2%) of the seven identified. An individual’s sex/age class was significantly linked to the type of vocalisation performed. T. delacouri vocalisation behaviour was relatively similar to that of other limestone langurs, although some differences in call structure were found. The released individuals all survived for a minimum of five months before tracking was disrupted for one, showing some wild-like behaviours, although their behaviours were largely atypical. The group quickly separated to travel as individuals, and ranged extensively with the adult male covering 1020ha in 9.5 months. Average day journey lengths were comparable to other limestone langurs (453m–735m), but the individuals did not develop distinct home ranges. A strong diurnal trend in movement showed two peaks at early morning and late afternoon, but minimal seasonal differences were detected. More extensive monitoring is needed to determine whether or not the release was a success, but the project fulfilled an important role as a pilot study to learn how best to conduct a release and how the animals will behave. In reviewing the release it was found to have broadly followed the IUCN guidelines, although gaps were identified suggesting more formalised planning, risk assessments, and consultation was needed. Moving forward, the possibility of translocating existing T. delacouri subpopulations, rather than conducting further captive releases, should be explored as a conservation strategy, along with continuing the effective protection measures in place at Van Long

Yellow fever in South America: The role of environment and host on transmission dynamics

Yellow fever (YF) is an arbovirus that affects both humans and non-human primates (NHPs). Despite a longstanding recognition of YF as a significant public health problem, many aspects of its underlying transmission and maintenance remain unknown. These knowledge gaps continue to exist even with the increasing availability of data, techniques and recent large-scale outbreaks in South America and Africa.Using several statistical and machine learning methods, I investigate the role of climate, environment and host in predicting the suitability of YF across South America, as an average, seasonally and inter-annually. Following Iexamine the role of seasonality of agriculture, as a proxy for exposure, on human and NHP YF reports in Brazil. To contextualise these predictions and recommendations, I calculate and describe population-level YF vaccination coverage estimates (1940-2050) across Africa and South America, as well as the interactive web-based platform these are published on. Finally, I predict the distribution and density of NHP genera across the South-East of Brazil, and use this ina stochastic multi-species, age structured, meta-population model to explore the role of NHP genera on viral maintenance, and the potential for the establishment of endemicity in the state of Rio de Janeiro.Overall this thesis describes several key aspects necessary to understand the enigma of YF transmission in South America. A greater understanding of climate and environment allows for the possibility of forecasting periods of heightened transmission which could inform pro-active surveillance and vaccination, supported through our vaccination coverage estimates. Finally, by providing insights into the role of NHP genera on maintenance and critical community sizes for YFV transmission, I can highlight the potential for endemicity to be established.Open Acces

Transitions to animal domestication in Southeast Asia: Zooarchaeological analysis of Cồn Cổ Ngựa and Mán Bạc, Vietnam

The domestication of plants and animals was a pivotal process that significantly affected and shaped the trajectory of human history. However, this transition is still poorly understood in many parts of the world. For Mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA), most researchers believe this transition was initialised by a migration of agricultural groups that spread from the Yangtze into MSEA following rivers and the coastline (Bellwood and Oxenham 2008; Matsumura et al. 2008; 2011). This hypothesis posits that these migrant populations brought domesticated crops and animals into the region and lived alongside indigenous hunter-gatherer groups. This thesis analyses the transition from hunting and gathering to domestication by comparing the taphonomic and taxonomic characteristics of the faunal assemblages of Cồn Cổ Ngựa (CCN) and Mán Bạc (MB) in northern Vietnam. Both sites were selected as they sit on either side of the presumed hunter-gatherer (CCN) and agricultural (MB) subsistence transition in Vietnam and have the potential to show crucial societal changes. Since CCN and MB are burial sites, human-animal interactions at the sites have the potential to portray the belief systems and ontology of the people. The ultimate aim was to contextualise CCN and MB within the framework of subsistence change in Southeast Asia (SEA) and determine how and whether human behaviour and human-animal relationships developed during this purported transitional phase in the Mid Holocene. A clear and perceivable shift in the faunal composition between CCN and MB was found, and this transition can be confidently attributed to the introduction of domesticated animals around 4,000 cal. BP to northern Vietnam. Further, results from the principal component analysis of sites throughout SEA showed that the relative proportions of certain taxa can be useful in separating hunter-gatherer and agricultural based sites across the region, as well as revealing outliers based on localised environments and/or choice. It was emphasised that this transition from ‘hunting to farming’ was by no means clear-cut. MB still had a strong emphasis on hunting wild taxa and fishing, and these permeable cultural-economic boundaries are also perceivable in other SEA sites. However, this thesis suggests that domestic and wild animals probably imbued different meanings and significance. Further, both CCN and MB were not ‘simply middens’ reflecting what people ate, rather they pose intriguing insights into human-animal interactions. At both sites there is a perceivable change in the engagement with animals and the landscape that, this thesis argues, involved a reconceptualising of this relationship