3,229 research outputs found
The effectiveness of technology-supported personalised learning in low- and middle-income countries: A meta-analysis
AbstractDigital technology offers the potential to address educational challenges in resourceâpoor settings. This metaâanalysis examines the impact of students' use of technology that personalises and adapts to learning level in lowâ and middleâincome countries. Following a systematic search for research between 2007 and 2020, 16 randomised controlled trials were identified in five countries. Studies involved 53,029 learners aged 6â15 years. Coding examined learning domain (mathematics and literacy); personalisation level and delivery; technology use; and intervention duration and intensity. Overall, technologyâsupported personalised learning was found to have a statistically significantâif moderateâpositive effect size of 0.18 on learning (p = 0.001). Metaâregression reveals how more personalised approaches which adapt or adjust to learners' level led to significantly greater impact (an effect size of 0.35) than those only linking to learners' interests or providing personalised feedback, support, and/or assessment. Avenues for future research include investigating cost implications, optimum programme length, and teachers' role in making personalised learning with technology effective.
Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic?
Promoting personalised learning is an established aim of educators.
Using technology to support personalised learning in lowâ and middleâincome countries (LMICs) could play an important role in ensuring more inclusive and equitable access to education, particularly in the aftermath of COVIDâ19.
There is currently no rigorous overview of evidence on the effectiveness of using technology to enable personalised learning in LMICs.
What this paper adds?
The metaâanalysis is the first to evaluate the effectiveness of technologyâsupported personalised learning in improving learning outcomes for schoolâaged children in LMICs.
Technologyâsupported personalised learning has a statistically significant, positive effect on learning outcomes.
Interventions are similarly effective for mathematics and literacy and whether or not teachers also have an active role in the personalisation.
Personalised approaches that adapt or adjust to the learner led to significantly greater impact, although whether these warrant the additional investment likely necessary for implementation at scale needs to be investigated.
Personalised technology implementation of moderate duration and intensity had similar positive effects to that of stronger duration and intensity, although further research is needed to confirm this.
Implications for practice and/or policy:
The inclusion of more adaptive personalisation features in technologyâassisted learning environments can lead to greater learning gains.
Personalised technology approaches featuring moderate personalisation may also yield learning rewards.
While it is not known whether personalised technology can be scaled in a costâeffective and contextually appropriate way, there are indications that this is possible.
The appropriateness of teachers integrating personalised approaches in their practice should be explored given âsupplementaryâ uses of personalised technology (ie, additional sessions involving technology outside of regular instruction) are common.
</jats:sec
A critical review of the harm-minimisation tools available for electronic gambling
The increasing sophistication of gambling products afforded by electronic tech- nologies facilitates increased accessibility to gambling, as well as encouraging rapid and continuous play. This poses several challenges from a responsible gambling perspective, in terms of facilitating player self-awareness and self-control. The same technological advancements in gambling that may facilitate a loss of control may also be used to provide responsible gambling tools and solutions to reduce gambling-related harm. Indeed, several harm-minimisation strategies have been devised that aim to facilitate self-awareness and self- control within a gambling session. Such strategies include the use of breaks in play, 'pop-up' messaging, limit setting, and behavioural tracking. The present paper reviews the theoretical argument underpinning the application of specific harm-minimisation tools, as well as pro- viding one of the first critical reviews of the empirical research assessing their efficacy, in terms of influencing gambling cognitions and behaviour
Population relevance of neurotoxic effects in refined and alternative behavior tests with zebrafish (Danio rerio)
Water supplies are widely, but unobtrusively contaminated with numerous substances of largely unknown biological properties. A particularly worrisome group are neurotoxic substances, which may, in the long term, not only affect human health, but also wildlife. Neurotoxic effects have become an issue of emerging concern in ecotoxicology, since they may have multiple underlying mechanisms, are often hard to detect, but have the potential to give rise to a severe adverse outcome. As neurotoxicity is even more difficult to detect without extensive animal testing, it presents a major challenge to modern ecotoxicology which is striving to reduce and replace animal studies.
My model species, the zebrafish (Danio rerio), is widely used in aquatic ecotoxicology but room for refinement remains especially where tests are carried out with adult individuals instead of potentially less perceptive early-life stages. Since zebrafish, like many other small fish, naturally form shoals and likely behave differently in isolation, I developed a shoal-based approach. In brief, early-life stage tests according to OECD TG 210 were augmented by two behavior tests that are typically carried out with single adult fish, but could be adapted to groups of juveniles with acceptable limitations: a novel tank test and a predator response assay. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine ((RS)-N-Methyl-3-phenyl-3-(4-trifluoromethylphenoxy) propylamine) served as model substance during a proof-of-concept study. In a follow-up study, I verified the suitability of this approach using a selection of other substances with different modes-of-action: carbamazepine (sodium channel inhibition), paraoxon-methyl (acetylcholine esterase inhibition), and tris(1,3-dichlorisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP; endocrine disruption). Finally, in order to assess whether existing alternative methods correlate to immediately population relevant endpoints, I carried out several other experiments across the life-stages of zebrafish with the same model substances.
Fluoxetine produced adverse effects down to concentrations three orders of magnitude below the EC10 from acute fish embryo toxicity tests (OECD TG 236). The known neurotoxicants carbamazepine and paraoxon-methyl caused significant effects on zebrafish behavior both upon release into a novel tank and after presentation of a predator dummy. TDCPP, which is thought to disrupt neural development at much earlier stages than those exposed in my experiments, only caused minor behavioral changes. Histopathology of the test fish confirmed the absence of acute organ damage at the concentrations used (always †EC10 from fish embryo tests). The suitability of shoal-based behavioral changes in juvenile zebrafish as sensitive endpoints of neurotoxicity could thus be confirmed. The deviations in behavior compared to the control groups permit conclusions about the âanxiety stateâ, which arguably influences the fishâs survival chances in the wild. An early and more abstract behavior endpoint, larval motility (6 dpf), also proved to be very efficient and held up well in a comparison with adult and juvenile behavior tests. Finally, a reproduction assay with adult fish exposed to fluoxetine revealed decreased fecundity as another directly population relevant effect of this chemical.
2
Correlation with embryonic and further adult data from literature revealed the good predictive power of 24-h spontaneous coiling tests for later behavior defects, leading me to propose a set of embryonic tests (FET + coiling) for neurotoxicity range-finding and screening in the future.
If the results from these âalternative methodsâ are negative or inconclusive, in vivo testing is indispensable to assess neurotoxicity; as such, larval motility and juvenile behavior assays
might follow
Bridging the gap in internet treatments for mental health: A fully automated online cognitive behaviour therapy for social anxiety for those who stutter.
Introduction: CBTpsych.com is a fully functional intervention that aims at bridging the gap between Eliza (Weizenbaum, 1966) and modern internet treatments for anxiety disorders (Helgadottir, Menzies, Onslow, Packman & OâBrien, 2009a). A Phase I trial demonstrated that two participants no longer met the diagnosis of social phobia on the DSM-IV and ICD-10 after being treated by CBTpsych.com. The quality of the interaction appeared to be similar to face-to-face therapy. The automated techniques were successful in engaging the participants and in encouraging them to log on regularly and complete the treatment (Helgadottir, Menzies, Onslow, Packman & OâBrien, 2009b). The current study is a phase II trial targeting social anxiety in stuttering. Method: File audit data were gathered from 10 years of experience in the psychological management of social anxiety and stuttering (St Clare et al., 2008). This data was used to create a fully automated human-like intervention using algorithms alone. CBTpsych.com creates cognitive restructuring exercises, behavioural experiments, and negative thoughts checklists for the automated treatment program. Furthermore, other features such as imagery rescripting were incorporated to adhere to the Clark D. M. and Wells (1995) model of social anxiety treatment. 18 participants presenting for treatment of stuttering with social anxiety at the Australian Stuttering Research Centre (ASRC) were offered 5 months access to the âcomputer psychologistâ. 16 participants started using the computer program. The treatment did not involve any contact with clinical psychologists at the ASRC. Results: Post-treatment analysis revealed that of the 16 participants who started using the program, 78% no longer met the criteria for social phobia. Furthermore, none of the 10 participants who completed all 7 sections of the computer program within 5 months had social phobia diagnosis at post-treatment. Consequently, in this study the âcomputer psychologistâ was able to identify the specific problem areas participants reported and to design individualized formulations and tailored treatment components with corrective feedback. Furthermore, participants were able to engage in highly specific cognitive restructuring exercises, and with the help of the computer psychologist managed to build behavioural experiments to test out unhelpful cognitions. Data from this Phase II trial suggest that the computerised treatment protocol can lead to substantial reductions in anxiety and avoidance, and improve mood and quality of life as measured by the FNE, SPAI, BDI-II, UTBAS, SASS and OASES. Conclusions: The computer psychologist motivated people both to log on regularly (with use of an automated email process) and to complete the program. It engaged clients in detailed cognitive restructuring work, creating successful behavioural experiments for exposure, and producing promising preliminary results. However, these results need to be tested in a randomized controlled trial to establish efficacy. A RCT is currently under way. The preliminary findings presented here suggest that it would be viable to develop this type of treatment intervention for other anxiety disorders. Limitations of this approach and suggestions for future research are discussed
Augmented Reality
Augmented Reality (AR) is a natural development from virtual reality (VR), which was developed several decades earlier. AR complements VR in many ways. Due to the advantages of the user being able to see both the real and virtual objects simultaneously, AR is far more intuitive, but it's not completely detached from human factors and other restrictions. AR doesn't consume as much time and effort in the applications because it's not required to construct the entire virtual scene and the environment. In this book, several new and emerging application areas of AR are presented and divided into three sections. The first section contains applications in outdoor and mobile AR, such as construction, restoration, security and surveillance. The second section deals with AR in medical, biological, and human bodies. The third and final section contains a number of new and useful applications in daily living and learning
Recommended from our members
Lessons Learned and Next Steps in Energy Efficiency Measurement and Attribution: Energy Savings, Net to Gross, Non-Energy Benefits, and Persistence of Energy Efficiency Behavior
This white paper examines four topics addressing evaluation, measurement, and attribution of direct and indirect effects to energy efficiency and behavioral programs: Estimates of program savings (gross); Net savings derivation through free ridership / net to gross analyses; Indirect non-energy benefits / impacts (e.g., comfort, convenience, emissions, jobs); and, Persistence of savings
Good Research Practice in Non-Clinical Pharmacology and Biomedicine
This open access book, published under a CC BY 4.0 license in the Pubmed indexed book series Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, provides up-to-date information on best practice to improve experimental design and quality of research in non-clinical pharmacology and biomedicine
Antidepressants
Major depression is a severe and prevalent brain disorder with a high disability burden, hence the push for effective treatments. Antidepressants have been around since the 1950s, and although current medications are much more effective than early ones, there is still much room for improvement. "Real" antidepressants, defined as those that "repair" or "improve" the depression-causing mechanism in the brains of depressed patients, have yet to be identified. This book presents current research on depression and antidepressants, including use of antidepressants in alcohol use disorders and pregnancy, treatment-resistant depression, and development of potential new medications
A review of the effectiveness of lower limb orthoses used in cerebral palsy
To produce this review, a systematic literature search was conducted for relevant articles published in the period between the date of the previous ISPO consensus conference report on cerebral palsy (1994) and April 2008. The search terms were 'cerebral and pals* (palsy, palsies), 'hemiplegia', 'diplegia', 'orthos*' (orthoses, orthosis) orthot* (orthotic, orthotics), brace or AFO
When do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation? A meta-analysis
Intrinsic motivationâdoing something because the activity is experienced as enjoyable, interesting, and funâoperates as an important energizer of human behaviors. Although researchers have studied intrinsic motivation and factors affecting it for decades, a debate persists on how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation. Originating from Deciâs (1971) seminal study showing the undermining of intrinsic motivation by contingent extrinsic rewards, researchers in the field of psychology and more recently in the field of organizational behavior have examined and debated whether extrinsic rewards undermine existing intrinsic motivation and, if so, under what conditions.
Although the debate is old, researchers have failed to reach a consensus on this issue. In the field of psychology, the lack of consensus is partly driven by partially contradictory findings of past meta-analyses. While some previous meta-analytical studies have provided strong support for the undermining of intrinsic motivation by extrinsic rewards in experimental settings (e.g., Deci et al., 1999a), others have reached substantially different conclusions (e.g., Cameron et al., 2001). In contrast, in the field of organizational behavior, a lack of quantitative synthesis on extrinsic rewardsâintrinsic work motivation literature has impaired the understanding of the undermining effect in organizational settings and led some scholars to dismiss possible drawbacks of using rewards to motivate employees.
Hence, the effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation remains highly debated. Drawing on cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and Deci, Koestner, and Ryanâs (1999a) meta-analytical review, this doctoral thesis tries to bring some reconciliation to this debate. This goal will be achieved by meta-analytically synthesizing research evidence from two settingsâexperimental laboratory studies and organizational settingsâon the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, the aim is to examine the suggested deleterious effects of contingently given rewards, which have been at the heart of the debate. This study focuses on answering the following questions:
1. Under what reward contingencies and populations will extrinsic rewards have a negative effect, no effect, or positive effect on intrinsic motivation in controlled laboratory experiments? What is the magnitude of the effect?
2. What is the association between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in organizational settings? How strong is this association?
A systematic search of published studies from seven electronic databases was carried out to answer these questions. Altogether, 158 peer-reviewed journal articles met the inclusion criteria. Three primary meta-analyses using a random-effects model and a hierarchical analysis framework were followed through. Following Deci et al.âs (1999a) steps, the analysis proceeded from a higher level of analysis examining the effect of all rewards on intrinsic motivation to more specified levels of analysis using reward type and reward contingency as moderators.
Two meta-analyses focused on examining the causal impact of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation by synthesizing the evidence from 142 randomized controlled laboratory experiments (125 published articles). Separate meta-analyses were performed for the two measures of intrinsic motivation: free-choice intrinsic motivation (i.e., free-choice behavior) and self-reported interest/enjoyment. The third primary meta-analysis synthesized the evidence from observational studies conducted in work settings. The goal was to examine the relationship between extrinsic reward and self-reported intrinsic work motivation. Altogether, 42 independent samples from 35 published articles were used in the analyses.
For the meta-analysis of experimental studies using the free-choice behavioral measure of intrinsic motivation, the findings suggest that extrinsic rewards negatively affect intrinsic motivation after the rewards are no longer offered. The undermining of free-choice intrinsic motivation by extrinsic rewards was evident for all rewards (d = â0.28), tangible rewards (d = â0.39), and expected rewards (d = â0.41). More specifically, extrinsic rewards undermine free-choice intrinsic motivation when rewards are contingent on task engagement (d = â0.42), task completion (d = â0.48), or task performance (d = â0.24). Results show nonsignificant effects for free-choice intrinsic motivation when rewards are given unexpectedly (d = â0.04), not tied to doing a specific task (d = 0.10), or given as negative verbal feedback (d = â0.52). The only clear enhancement effect is evident for positive feedback (d = 0.33), albeit age moderates this effect.
For the meta-analysis on self-reported interest/enjoyment, the results generally do not provide compelling support for the enhancement effect or the undermining effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Overall, the results show weaker mean effects, albeit the general pattern of effects is similar to the analysis of free-choice intrinsic motivation. The only statistically significant positive outcomes are evident for positive feedback (d = 0.26) and performance-contingent rewards (d = 0.11), while engagement-contingent rewards represent the only reward contingency to undermine self-reported interest and enjoyment (d = â0.16). Notably, age moderates this negative effect.
For the meta-analysis of observational studies, no significant overall level association was found for the relationship between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic work motivation. More specific analyses showed that self-reported positive feedback and base salary (i.e., task-noncontingent rewards) were positively associated with self-reported intrinsic work motivation (r = 0.19 and r = 0.19, respectively). The relationship between intrinsic work motivation and performance-based rewards (PBRs) was nonsignificant (r = 0.05) and extremely heterogeneous. A supplementary analysis revealed a weak negative mean correlation for the PBRsâintrinsic work motivation relationship when PBRs were perceived as more controlling than informational (r = â0.10).
Overall, this doctoral dissertationâs findings support the conclusion that contingent extrinsic rewards can and do undermine intrinsic motivation. The negative effects are most readily observable when given rewards are contingent on doing something, and intrinsic motivation is assessed behaviorally after rewards are no longer offered. However, it is important to note that reward effects are partially dependent on how intrinsic motivation is measured (behavioral vs. self-report), the type of reward contingency and reward, and the context in which the extrinsic rewardsâintrinsic motivation relationship is examined (laboratory vs. organizational). All three meta-analyses suggest that positive feedback can enhance intrinsic motivation and that task-noncontingent rewards are not harmful to intrinsic motivation. All in all, the results clearly support the postulates of cognitive evaluation theory.
As well as the meta-analytical contribution of this doctoral thesis, this thesis contributes to the research on intrinsic motivation by identifying significant future research avenues and potential methodological issues within both fields of research. Likewise, this study identified major theoretical differences between experimental and organizational studies that help explain why rewardsâ effects are stronger in experimental settings. These include the measurement of intrinsic motivation at different levels of generality (task-/situation specific vs. domain), the timing of intrinsic motivation assessment, the assessment of the effects of reward attainment versus reward expectancy, and the time lag between doing the task and receiving the promised reward. This thesis helps one understand and potentially explain why these two research fields may produce partially mixed findings by underscoring major theoretical differences between controlled laboratory experiments and studies conducted in organizational settings. Overall, this thesis contributes by helping one understand under what circumstances and populations extrinsic rewards will most likely yield negative or positive effects on intrinsic motivation. Moreover, this study highlights the inherent complexities associated with studying the effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation that should be taken into account.Milloin ulkoiset palkkiot heikentĂ€vĂ€t sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota? Meta-analyyttinen tutkimus aiheesta
SisĂ€inen motivaatio â eli jonkin asian tekeminen, koska sen tekeminen itsessÀÀn on kiinnostavaa, nautinnollista ja hauskaa â toimii toimintamme tĂ€rkeĂ€nĂ€ energisoijana. Vaikka sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota ja siihen vaikuttavia tekijöitĂ€ on tutkittu jo useamman vuosikymmenen ajan, tutkimuskentĂ€llĂ€ vallitsee kiistaa siitĂ€, miten ulkoiset palkkiot vaikuttavat yksilön sisĂ€iseen motivaatioon. Alkujaan psykologian ja sittemmin myös organisaatiokĂ€yttĂ€ytymisen tutkimuskentĂ€llĂ€ on kĂ€yty debattia siitĂ€, heikentĂ€vĂ€tkö ulkoiset palkkiot yksilön sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota, ja jos heikentĂ€vĂ€t, niin missĂ€ tilanteissa. TĂ€mĂ€ kiista juontaa juurensa Edward Decin (1971) tutkimukseen, joka osoitti ulkoisten palkkioiden voivan heikentÀÀ yksilön sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota.
Vaikka edellÀ mainittu kiista on jo vanha, jatkuu se edelleen, koska tutkijat eivÀt ole saavuttaneet konsensusta asiasta. Konsensuksen puutteen voi nÀhdÀ kumpuavan osittain aikaisemmin tehtyjen meta-analyysien paikoitellen ristiriitaisista tuloksista. Vaikka jotkin aikaisemmat kokeellisiin laboratoriotutkimuksiin pohjaavat meta-analyyttiset tutkimukset ovat antaneet vahvaa tukea ulkoisten palkkioiden sisÀistÀ motivaatiota heikentÀvÀstÀ vaikutuksesta (esim. Deci ym., 1999a), toiset meta-analyyttiset tutkimukset ovat pÀÀtyneet hyvin erilaisiin lopputuloksiin (esim. Cameron ym., 2001). SitÀ vastoin aihetta kÀsittelevÀn meta-analyyttisen tutkimuksen puute organisaatiokÀyttÀytymisen tutkimuskentÀllÀ on heikentÀnyt ymmÀrrystÀmme sisÀisen motivaation mahdollisesta heikentymisestÀ työkontekstissa. Osittain tÀmÀn takia osa alan tutkijoista ei ole antanut painoarvoa mahdollisille haittapuolille, jotka aiheutuvat työntekijöiden motivoinnista ulkoisin palkkioin.
EdellÀ mainituitten tekijöjen takia selvyys siitÀ, miten ulkoiset palkkiot vaikuttavat yksilön sisÀiseen motivaation on edelleen kiistelyn kohteena. Pohjautuen kognitiivisen arvioinnin teoriaan (Deci & Ryan, 1985) sekÀ Decin, Koestnerin ja Ryanin (1999a) meta-analyyttiseen tutkimukseen, tÀmÀn vÀitöskirjan tarkoituksena on tuoda selvyyttÀ tÀhÀn kiistaan. TÀhÀn tavoitteeseen pyritÀÀn analysoimalla meta-analyyttisesti ulkoisten palkkioiden vaikutusta yksilön sisÀiseen motivaation niin kokeellisten laboratoriotutkimusten kuin organisaatiokonteksteissa toteutettujen ei-kokeellisten tutkimusten konteksteissa. TÀmÀn vÀitöskirjan tarkoituksena on tutkia erityisesti kiistan keskiössÀ olevaa ehdotusta siitÀ, ettÀ ehdollisesti annetut palkkiot heikentÀvÀt sisÀistÀ motivaatiota. TÀmÀ vÀitöskirjan keskeiset tutkimuskysymykset ovat seuraavat:
1. MissÀ palkkio-olosuhteissa ja populaatioissa ulkoisilla palkkioilla on negatiivinen vaikutus, ei vaikutusta tai positiivinen vaikutus sisÀiseen motivaatioon kontrolloiduissa laboratoriotutkimuksissa, ja mikÀ on tÀmÀn vaikutuksen voimakkuus?
2. MikÀ on ulkoisten palkkioiden ja sisÀisen työmotivaation vÀlinen yhteys työkontekstissa ja kuinka voimakas tÀmÀ yhteys on?
NÀihin kysymyksiin vastaamiseksi julkaistuja tutkimuksia etsittiin systemaattisella haulla seitsemÀstÀ eri tietokannasta. YhteensÀ 158 vertaisarvioitua tieteellistÀ artikkelia tÀytti tutkimuksille asetetut sisÀllyttÀmiskriteerit. TÀhÀn aineistoon pohjautuen toteutettiin kolme pÀÀasiallista meta-analyysiÀ hyödyntÀen satunnaisvaikutusten mallia. Analyysin toteutuksessa seurattiin Decin ym. (1999a) kÀyttÀmÀÀ hierarkkista analyysitapaa. Palkkioiden vaikutusten analysointi aloitettiin selvittÀmÀllÀ kaikkien palkkioiden kokonaisvaikutusta sisÀiseen motivaatioon. TÀmÀn jÀlkeen analyysissÀ siirryttiin analysoimaan spesifisempiÀ vaikutuksia. Palkkion tyyppiÀ sekÀ palkkio-olosuhdetta hyödynnettiin moderaattorimuuttujina.
Kaksi suoritettua meta-analyysiÀ tutki palkkioiden kausaalista vaikutusta yksilön sisÀiseen motivaatioon. Aineistona nÀissÀ kahdessa analyysissÀ toimi 142 satunnaistettua kontrolloitua laboratoriotutkimusta, jotka oli poimittu 125:stÀ julkaistusta tieteellisestÀ artikkelista. Tutkimuksen selitettÀvinÀ muuttujina toimivat yksilön sisÀisesti motivoitunut kÀyttÀytyminen vapaan valinnan tilanteessa sekÀ itsearvioitu tehtÀvÀn kiinnostavuus. Kolmas meta-analyysi pohjasi puolestaan työkontekstissa tehtyihin havaintotutkimuksiin. Tavoitteena oli tutkia ulkoisten palkkioiden ja itsearvioidun sisÀisen työmotivaation vÀlistÀ yhteyttÀ. Analyysiin sisÀllytettiin yhteensÀ 42 riippumatonta otosta 35:stÀ julkaistusta tieteellisestÀ artikkelista.
Tutkimuksen tulokset indikoivat ulkoisilla palkkioilla olevan kokonaisvaltainen negatiivinen vaikutus yksilön sisĂ€isesti motivoituneeseen kĂ€yttĂ€ytymiseen kokeellisissa tutkimuksissa, kun palkkioita ei ole enÀÀ tarjolla. SisĂ€isesti motivoituneen kĂ€yttĂ€ytymisen heikentyminen on nĂ€htĂ€villĂ€ kaikkien palkkioiden (d = â0.28), konkreettisten palkkioiden (d = â0.39) kuin odotettujen palkkioiden kohdalla (d = â0.41). Ulkoiset palkkiot heikentĂ€vĂ€t sisĂ€isesti motivoitunutta kĂ€yttĂ€ytymistĂ€ erityisesti silloin, kun palkkioiden saaminen on riippuvaista tehtĂ€vĂ€n tekemisestĂ€ (d = â0.42), tehtĂ€vĂ€n valmistumisesta (d = â0.48) tai hyvĂ€stĂ€ suoriutumisesta tehtĂ€vĂ€ssĂ€ (d = â0.24). Tulokset osoittivat puolestaan, ettĂ€ annetuilla palkkioilla ei ole tilastollisesti merkitsevÀÀ vaikutusta yksilön sisĂ€isesti motivoituneeseen kĂ€yttĂ€ytymiseen, kun palkkio annetaan odottamattomasti (d = â0.04), palkkion saaminen ei ole riippuvaista tehtĂ€vĂ€n tekemisestĂ€ (d = 0.10) tai se annetaan negatiivisen verbaalisen palauteen muodossa (d = â0.52). Ainoastaan positiivisen palautteen tapauksessa ulkoinen palkkio vahvistaa sisĂ€isesti motivoitunutta kĂ€yttĂ€ytymistĂ€ (d = 0.33), joskin vaikutuksen voimakkuus on riippuvaista iĂ€stĂ€.
Itsearvioidun tehtĂ€vĂ€n kiinnostavuuden osalta meta-analyyttiset tulokset eivĂ€t anna tukea palkkioiden sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota vahvistavalle tai heikentĂ€vĂ€lle vaikutukselle. Kokonaisuudessaan ulkoisten palkkioiden vaikutukset itsearvioituun kiinnostukseen ovat vĂ€hĂ€isempiĂ€ kuin sisĂ€isesti motivoituneen kĂ€yttĂ€ytymisen kohdalla, joskin vaikutusten yleinen kaava on samansuuntainen. Ainoat tilastollisesti merkitsevĂ€t positiiviset vaikutukset ovat nĂ€htĂ€villĂ€ positiiviselle palautteelle (d = 0.26) sekĂ€ suoriutumisesta riippuville palkkioille (d = 0.11). TehtĂ€vĂ€n tekemisestĂ€ riippuvat palkkiot muodostavat puolestaan ainoan palkkiotyypin, jolla on itsearvioitua sisĂ€istĂ€ motivaatiota heikentĂ€vĂ€ vaikutus (d = â0.16). On kuitenkin huomioitava, ettĂ€ vaikutus on riippuvaista iĂ€stĂ€.
Havaintotutkimuksiin pohjautuva meta-analyysi indikoi, ettei ulkoisten palkkioiden ja sisĂ€isen työmotivaation vĂ€lillĂ€ ole yleistason yhteyttĂ€. Tarkemmat analyysit osoittavat kuitenkin sen, ettĂ€ itsearvioidun positiivisen palautteen ja sisĂ€isen työmotivaation (r = 0.19) sekĂ€ pohjapalkan mÀÀrĂ€n ja sisĂ€isen työmotivaation (r = 0.19) vĂ€lillĂ€ on tilastollisesti merkitsevĂ€t positiiviset yhteydet. Sen sijaan meta-analyysin tulokset indikoivat, ettei suoriutumiseen sidottujen palkkioiden ja sisĂ€isen työmotivaation vĂ€lillĂ€ ole tilastollisesti merkitsevÀÀ yhteyttĂ€ (r = 0.05). LisĂ€ksi tulokset indikoivat, ettĂ€ nĂ€iden kahden muuttujan vĂ€linen yhteys on erittĂ€in heterogeeninen. Suoritettu lisĂ€analyysi osoittaa, ettĂ€ suoriutumiseen sidottujen palkkioiden ja sisĂ€isen työmotivaation vĂ€lillĂ€ on tilastollisesti merkitsevĂ€ negatiivinen yhteys (r = â0.10), kun edellĂ€ mainituilla palkkioilla koetaan olevan voimakkaampi toimintaa kontrolloiva kuin informatiivinen (palautetta viestivĂ€) psykologinen merkitys.
Kokonaisuudessaan tÀmÀn vÀitöskirjan tulokset antavat tukea johtopÀÀtökselle, ettÀ ehdollisesti annetut palkkiot voivat heikentÀÀ yksilön sisÀistÀ motivaatiota. TÀmÀ negatiivinen vaikutus on nÀhtÀvillÀ selkeimmin palkkioiden ollessa tavalla tai toisella riippuvaisia tehtÀvÀn tekemisestÀ, ja kun sisÀisen motivaation arviointi pohjautuu kÀyttÀytymisen havainnointiin tilanteessa, jolloin palkkioita ei ole enÀÀ saatavilla. On kuitenkin tarpeellista huomioida, ettÀ palkkioiden vaikutukset ovat osittain riippuvaisia siitÀ, miten sisÀinen motivaation on operationalisoitu (kÀyttÀytyminen vs. itsearvio), annettavan palkkion tyypistÀ ja sen saamisen ehdollisuudesta sekÀ kontekstista, jossa ulkoisten palkkioiden ja sisÀisen motivaation vÀlistÀ vuorovaikutusta tutkitaan (laboratorio vs. organisatorinen). Mielenkiintoisesti kaikki kolme suoritettua meta-analyysiÀ indikoivat positiivisen palautteen vahvistavan sisÀistÀ motivaatiota, ja ettÀ tehtÀvÀstÀ riippumattomat palkkiot eivÀt heikennÀ sisÀistÀ motivaatiota. Kokonaisuudessaan tulosten voidaan nÀhdÀ antavan tukea kognitiivisen arvioinnin teorialle.
NÀiden lisÀksi tÀmÀ vÀitöskirja kontribuoi motivaation tutkimuskenttÀÀn tunnistamalla metodologisia heikkouksia ja jatkotutkimusmahdollisuuksia niin kokeellisen psykologian kuin organisaatiokÀyttÀytymisen tutkimuskentillÀ. LisÀksi tÀssÀ vÀitöskirjassa tunnistettiin merkittÀviÀ teoreettisia eroja kontrolloitujen laboratoriotutkimusten ja organisaatiokontekstissa suoritettavien havaintotutkimusten vÀlillÀ, jotka auttavat ymmÀrtÀmÀÀn sitÀ, miksi palkkioiden vaikutukset sisÀiseen motivaatioon ovat voimakkaampia tutkittaessa ilmiötÀ kontrolloidulla koeasetelmalla. Tunnistetut erot liittyvÀt sisÀisen motivaation mittaamiseen toiminnan yleisyyden eri tasoilla (tehtÀvÀ/tilannekohtainen motivaatio vs. kontekstisidonnainen motivaatio), sisÀisen motivaation arvioinnin ajankohtaan, palkkioon todelliseen saamiseen sekÀ aikaviiveeseen tehtÀvÀn tekemisen ja siitÀ saatavan palkkion vÀlillÀ. Erojen huomioiminen ja ymmÀrtÀminen nÀiden kahden tutkimuskentÀn vÀlillÀ auttaa ymmÀrtÀmÀÀn, miksi nÀmÀ kaksi tutkimustapaa saattavat tuottaa osittain erilaisia tuloksia. Kokoisuudessaan tÀmÀn vÀitöskirjan kontribuutio liittyy ymmÀrryksen luomiseen siitÀ, missÀ olosuhteissa sekÀ ryhmissÀ ulkoisilla palkkioilla on todennÀköisesti negatiivisia tai positiivisia seurauksia yksilön sisÀiseen motivaatioon. LisÀksi tÀmÀ tutkimus ilmentÀÀ ulkoisten palkkioiden ja sisÀisen motivaation keskinÀisen vaikutussuhteen tutkimiseen liittyvÀÀ monimutkaisuutta, joka tulisi ottaa huomioon tulevissa tutkimuksissa
- âŠ