Water as a Productive Resource: Governance for Equity and Poverty Reduction

human development, water, sanitation

Off-Grid Electricity Access and its Impact on Micro-Enterprises: Evidence from Rural Uganda.

The history of development shows convincingly that no country has substantially reduced poverty without massively increasing the use of electricity. The development of micro-enterprises in rural areas of Uganda is linked with increased access and use of electricity services. In this study, I combine quantitative and qualitative methods, including informal surveys, intra-business energy allocation studies and historical analysis, to analyze off-grid electricity access among micro-enterprises in rural western Uganda. I explore the linkages between off-grid electricity access and the influence it has on microenterprises. Data is obtained from 56 micro-enterprises located in 11 village-towns within 3 districts in Uganda. In studying the micro-enterprises, the focus is on the services that are provided by electricity from modern energy carriers. The type of equipment used, forms of transportation, technical support, level of understanding and education of the entrepreneur, financing for energy equipment, and the role of donors are discussed in this thesis. Qualitative methods are used to allow for new insights and prioritization of concepts to emerge from the field rather than from theory. Micro-enterprises in rural Uganda create income for the poor; they are resources for poverty reduction. With price adjustments, it becomes possible for those who live below the poverty line, nominally less than $1 a day, to afford the products and services and therefore mitigating the vicious cycle of poverty. Energy consumption among the micro-enterprises is at an average of 0.13kWh/day. The cost of accessing this amount of electricity attributes to about 50% of total revenue. I find that the “practices” used in off-grid electricity access lead to situations where the entrepreneurs have to evaluate pricing and output of products and services to generate higher profits. Such numbers indicate the need for appropriate technologies and profitable policies to be implemented. The data indicates that without subsidies, credit-based sales and better financing options, it is unlikely that access to electricity will increase beyond the levels established in the existing cash market. Concerns about equity and other social issues indicate a need for careful attention to the implications of policy choices and the processes that influence the use of technology.Ph.D.Applied PhysicsUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/78822/1/pmuhoro_1.pd

2018 Faculty Accomplishments Reception

Program for the 2018 Faculty Accomplishments ReceptionIn Honor of University of Richmond Faculty Contributions to Scholarship, Research and Creative Work, January 2017 - December 2017March 30, 2018, 3:00 - 4:30 p.m.Boatwright Memorial Library, Research & Collaborative Study Area, First Floorhttps://scholarship.richmond.edu/far-programs/1001/thumbnail.jp

How is Water Privatisation Justified? Frame Analysis of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs).

Tutkielman lähtökohtana on oletus, että neoklassisesta talousteoriasta voidaan johtaa erityinen oikeusteoria, joka selittää veden yksityistämisen oikeutuksen. Tutkielman tavoitteena on kuvailla miten ja miksi veden yksityistämistä oikeutetaan kolmen tutkimuskysymyksen avulla: Minkälaisia ongelmia voidaan tunnistaa puhtaan juomaveden saannissa? Minkälaisia yksityistämistoimenpiteitä ehdotetaan näiden ongelmien ratkaisemiseksi? Miten näitä veden yksityistämistoimenpiteitä oikeutetaan? Tutkimuskysymykset kontekstualisoidaan tarkastelemalla kattavasti veden yksityistämisen historiaa ja nykyistä asemaa osana laajempaa neoliberaalia projektia sekä tutkimalla neoklassisen talousteorian normatiivista taustaa Pareto-optimaalisuuteen liittyvän käsitteistön avulla. Tutkimuksen aineistona käytetään 25:tä köyhyydenvähennysstrategiapaperia (Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers), jotka 25 matalan tulotason maata ovat julkaisseet yhteistyössä Maailmanpankin ja Kansainvälisen valuuttarahaston kanssa vuosina 2010-2014. Aineistoa tarkastellaan pääosin laadullisen tutkimuksen keinoin hyödyntämällä niin sisältö- kuin kehysanalyysiä tutkimusmenetelminä. Aineiston analyysin aikana esiin nousi ensiksi se, että huolimatta vesiongelmien laajuudesta ja suurista eroavaisuuksista, veden saannin ongelmat liittyivät pääasiallisesti veden epätasaiseen ja -oikeudenmukaiseen jakoon eikä niinkään veden aineelliseen niukkuuteen. Toiseksi tutkimus löysi kolme veden yksityistämistoimenpiteen strategiaa, joita olivat yksityistämisen strategia, kaupallistamisen strategia ja hallinnon vapauttamisen strategia. Viimeiseksi tutkimus löysi aineistoa tarkastelemalla neljä pääkehystä. Nämä kehykset olivat edistyksen kehys, taloudellisen hyödykkeen kehys, hallituksen vastainen kehys ja oikeuskehys. Tutkimustulokset viittaavat siihen, että veden yksityistämistoimenpiteet enenevissä määrin hämärtävät ’julkisen’ ja ’yksityisen’ välisen eron. Tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että ’julkinen’ toimii jo pitkälti markkinalogiikan mukaan eikä ero veden yksityistämisen ja valtion ohjauksen välillä ole enää yhtä merkittävä. Nämä toimenpiteet ovat oikeutettuja neoklassisesta talousteoriasta johdetun oikeusteorian avulla, joka pohjautuu Pareto-optimaalisuuteen. Näin kansainväliset rahoituslaitokset ja valtiot voivat paradoksaalisesti mahdollistaa vesihuoltojärjestelmien yksityistämistoimenpiteet, koska Pareto-optimaalisuus pyrkii luomaan utopistiset täydellisen kilpailun olosuhteet, missä vesiresurssit jaetaan kaikista tehokkaimmalla ja näin myös kaikista oikeudenmukaisimmalla tavalla.The premise of this thesis is that neoclassical economics as a particular theory of justice explains the justification of water privatisation. Hence, the aim of the study is to describe how and why water privatisation is justified by asking three research questions: What problems are distinguished in relation to access to safe drinking water? What privatisation measures are proposed as solutions? How are these water privatisation measures justified? These research questions are contextualised by providing a comprehensive account on the history and present status of water privatisation within the neoliberal project and examining the normative basis of neoclassical economics via the concept of Pareto optimality. This is done by analysing 25 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) that were published by 25 low-income countries under the guidance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) during 2010-2014. These PRSPs are examined through content analysis and frame analysis in a largely qualitatively manner. In the analysis of PRSPs, the thesis found, first, that although the problems in relation to access to water were highly varied, the uneven and unequal access to water was more prevalent than physical water scarcity issues. Secondly, three strategies of privatisation measures were identified in PRSPs: strategy of privatisation, strategy of commercialisation and strategy of liberalisation of governance. Finally, the study found four principal frames justifying water privatisation in PRSPs. These frames were development frame, economic good frame, anti-government frame and right frame. The results suggest that water privatisation measures increasingly blur the distinction between ‘public’ and ‘private’. This implies that the ‘public’ is largely guided by the market logic, and thus the difference between water privatisation and public sector control is increasingly irrelevant. These privatisation measures are justified by drawing on neoclassical economics as a theory of justice that is based on Pareto optimality. This way, international financial institutions (IFIs) and states can paradoxically allow for privatisation measures in water supply systems since it can ideally create the conditions for perfect competition whereby water resources become allocated in the most efficient, and thus in the most just way

Dynamics of Social and Individual Preferences: Evidence from Madagascar

Jeden Tag treffen Individuen unterschiedliche Entscheidungen, die ihre individuellen und sozialen Präferenzen widerspiegeln. Bis vor nicht allzu langer Zeit standen die individuellen Präferenzen im Mittelpunkt der ökonomischen Theorie. Jetzt werden auch soziale Präferenzen bei der Modellierung von Entscheidungen berücksichtigt, da das Bild des rein maximierenden Individuums obsolet geworden ist. Dennoch messen und verallgemeinern die meisten der veröffentlichten Studien immer noch soziale und individuelle Präferenzen von Individuen, die in westlichen, gebildeten, industrialisierten, reichen und demokratischen (WEIRD) Ländern leben. Diese Arbeit trägt zur Literatur bei, indem sie soziale und individuelle Präferenzen mit nicht-WEIRD Probandenpools erforscht und diese Präferenzen mit Verhaltensweisen außerhalb des experimentellen, kontrollierten Settings in Verbindung bringt.  Diese Dissertation besteht aus vier verschiedenen Kapiteln an der Schnittstelle von Entwicklungs- und Verhaltensökonomie. Jedes Kapitel erklärt die Motivation, das experimentelle Design und die Ergebnisse des Forschungsprojekts. Sie beinhalten auch eine Diskussion und wertvolle Elemente für zukünftige Forschung und Politikgestaltung. Den Kapiteln dieser Dissertation ist gemeinsam, dass sie auf experimentellen Daten von Vanillebauern und Studenten im Nordosten Madagaskars basieren. In der Untersuchungsregion kamen nicht nur quantitative Methoden zum Einsatz, sondern auch qualitative Methoden wie Fokusgruppendiskussionen und partizipative Methoden. Sie bereichern den Inhalt und die Diskussion der einzelnen Kapitel.  In den Kapiteln 2 und 3 werden antisoziale Verhaltensweisen und Einstellungen zur Verratsaversion untersucht, die ebenfalls mit der Kriminalitätsbelastung in Zusammenhang stehen. Kriminalität ist eine wichtige Herausforderung in der Studienregion, und daher ist es interessant zu analysieren, wie Kriminalität Präferenzen und Verhaltensweisen beeinflussen kann. Wir finden, dass antisoziale Verhaltensweisen prosoziale Verhaltensweisen verdrängen und dass Personen, die Kriminalität ausgesetzt sind, sich im Experiment eher antisozial verhalten. Darüber hinaus finden wir einen Zusammenhang zwischen Kriminalität und Verratsaversions-Einstellungen. Wir finden jedoch keine Belege für Verratsaversionseinstellungen, wie sie andere Arbeiten gezeigt haben, und wir können solche Einstellungen auch nicht mit den Produktions- und Kommerzialisierungsentscheidungen der Bauern in Verbindung bringen.  Die Kapitel 4 und 5 befassen sich mit den Auswirkungen der Informationsbereitstellung auf die Präferenzen und anschließend auf das Verhalten. Sowohl Kapitel 4 als auch 5 basieren auf Experimenten, in denen Probanden Informationen in Form von Audios oder Videos erhalten und wir anschließend ihre Entscheidungsfindung untersuchen. In Kapitel 4 geht es um das Thema Umweltschutz. Wir finden, dass das Hören von Botschaften, die als imperativ-egoistisch gerahmt sind, effektiv dazu führt, dass Beiträge für die Umwelt geleistet werden. Kapitel 5 steht im Zusammenhang mit der Arbeitsmarktbeteiligung. In diesem Kapitel zeigen wir, dass weibliche Vorbilder die Bereitschaft, in den Arbeitsmarkt einzutreten, sowohl bei weiblichen als auch bei männlichen Studenten erhöhen, dass aber männliche Vorbilder die Frauen dazu bringen, sich auf wettbewerbsfähigere Stellen zu bewerben. Beide Studien liefern wichtige Grundlagen für die praktische Anwendung in Politik und Gesellschaft. Every day individuals make different decisions that reflect their individual and social preferences. Until not long ago, individual preferences were at the center of the economic theory. Now, social preferences are also considered in the modeling of decision-making as the image of the pure maximizing individual has become obsolete. Yet, most of the published studies still measure and generalize social and individual preferences from individuals living in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic (WEIRD) countries. This thesis contributes to the literature by exploring social and individual preferences with non-WEIRD subject pools and by linking such preferences to behaviors outside of the experimental controlled setting. This dissertation consists of four different chapters at the intersection of development and behavioral economics. Each chapter explains the motivation, experimental designs and results of the research project. They also include a discussion and valuable elements for future research a policymaking. The chapters part of this dissertation have in common that they are based on experimental data collected in northeastern Madagascar from vanilla farmers and students. In the study region not only quantitative methods were in place, but also qualitative methods such as focus group discussions and participatory methods. They enrich the content and discussion of each of the chapters. Chapters 2 and 3 explore anti-social behaviors and betrayal aversion attitudes which are also linked to crime exposure. Crime is an important challenge in the study region, and hence it is interesting to analyze how crime can affect preferences and behaviors. We find that anti-social behaviors crowd out prosocial behaviors and that individuals expose to crime are likely to behave anti-social in the experiment. Moreover, we find a relation between crime and betrayal aversion attitudes. Yet, we do not find evidence for betrayal aversion attitudes as other papers have shown, nor we can link such attitudes to the production and commercialization decisions of farmers. Chapters 4 and 5 are related to the effects of information provision on preferences and subsequently, on behavior. Both Chapter 4 and 5 provide evidence from experiments in which subjects receive information in the form of audios or videos and thereafter we explore their decision-making. Chapter 4 is related to the topic of environmental conservation. We find that listening to messages framed as imperative-egoistic are effective in driving contributions for the environment. Chapter 5 is related to labor market participation. In this chapter we show that female role models increase the willingness to enter the labor market for both female and male students, but that male role models persuade females in applying for more competitive jobs. In general, both studies are blueprint for scaling up policies. 2021-08-0

Shedding light on the last mile : a study on the diffusion of pay as you go solar home systems in Central East Africa

Approximately 1.2 billion people lack basic access to electricity. The United Nations 'Sustainable Energy for All' initiative exemplifies the urgent need to address this issue. Recent advancements in photovoltaic, light emitting diode and battery technology have resulted in the rise of affordable and innovative household electricity technologies, however penetration rates remain low due to complexity surrounding ‘last mile’ distribution. This paper applies the diffusion of innovations theory as a framework to investigate the ‘last mile’ challenges encountered when launching a Pay As You Go Solar Home System in a region of Central East Africa. The results indicate that Pay As You Go offers the potential to deliver a disruptive positive impact with regard to increasing access to clean affordable energy for the poor, however, both the technology and business model are more complex than current alternatives and therefore require a much more developed go-to-market strategy. The cost of achieving widespread diffusion is therefore higher than similar products sold at retail, yet this is balanced by potential for a much faster rate of adoption. Finally, this paper demonstrates the applicability of the diffusion of innovations theory as a viable framework for analysing last mile challenges associated with Solar Home Systems

The City Electric

Michael Degani explores how electricity and its piracy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, has become a key site for urban Tanzanians to enact, experience, and debate their social contract with the state

Green Growth Diagnostics for Africa: Literature Review and Scoping Study

This paper reviews the literature for a project which seeks to develop a new Green Growth Diagnostics methodology and apply it to countries in Africa. The original growth diagnostics methodology was developed by Haussmann, Rodrik and Velasco to identify the key constraints holding back economic growth from its full potential. Their approach was driven by the needs of policymakers facing the dilemma that most problems have multiple causes, but governments cannot tackle all of them at once, given limitations in their financial and executive capacity. This gave rise to the idea of concentrating these limited resources on the binding constraint, which would be identified going through a tool conceptualised as a decision tree. The proponents of the original growth diagnostics also realised that this binding constraint varies between countries and - we would argue - between sectors. The central point of the original growth diagnostics method was that it offered researchers and policy makers a way of identifying priorities in analysis and policy; and finding solutions which take into account local conditions. The same rationale applies to our Green Growth Diagnostic project. We build on the original approach but adapt it in four ways: 1. Applying it to the energy sector; 2. Taking into account potential knock-on effects on the economy; 3. The political economy when going from diagnostics to therapeutics; and 4. Working out the distributional consequences. Since each step takes the project into un(der)explored territory, it is built around five research questions and corresponding methodologically distinct work packages. Our five research questions are: 1. What are the binding constraints for investment in economically viable renewable energy?; 2.Which policies can more effectively target different binding constraints?; 3. Who obstructs/drives the adoption of specific sustainable energy policies?; 4. What would be the macroeconomic impacts of an increase in renewable energy investment/capacity, and the reforms needed to bring this increase about? and 5. Under what circumstances increased on-grid renewable energy capacity translates into increased access to and increased reliability of electricity supply in developing countries? This paper pulls together what we can learn from the international literature on these questions

Privatization in Africa: What has happened? What is to be done?

Sub-Saharan African states urgently need expanded and more dynamic private sectors, more efficient and effective infrastructure/utility provision, and increased investment from both domestic and foreign sources. Privatization is one way to address these problems. But African states have generally been slow and reluctant privatizers; a good percentage of industrial/manufacturing and most infrastructure still remains in state hands. Given prevailing public hostility towards privatization, and widespread institutional weaknesses, such caution is defensible, but nonetheless very costly. The long-run and difficult solution is the creation and reinforcement of the institutions that underpin and guide proper market operations. In the interim, African governments and donors have little choice but to continue to experiment with the use of externally supplied substitutes for gaps in local regulatory and legal systems.Privatization, Sub-Saharan Africa

African cities and collaborative futures

African cities and collaborative futures: Urban platforms and metropolitan logistics brings together scholars from across the globe to discuss the nature of African cities – the interactions of residents with infrastructure, energy, housing, safety and sustainability, seen through local narratives and theories. This groundbreaking collection, drawing on a variety of fields and extensive first-hand research, offers a fresh perspective on some of the most pressing issues confronting urban Africa in the twenty-first century. Each of the chapters, using case studies from Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Niger, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania, explores how the rapid growth of African cities is reconfiguring the relationship between urban social life and its built forms. While the most visible transformations in cities today can be seen as infrastructural, these manifestations are cultural as well as material, reflecting the different ways in which the city is rationalised, economised and governed. How can we ‘see like a city’ in twenty-first-century Africa, understanding the urban present to shape its future? This is the central question posed throughout this volume, with a practical focus on how academics, local decision-makers and international practitioners can work together to achieve better outcomes