Investigating the Impact of a Brief Cognitive Defusion Intervention on State Anxiety and Psychological Inflexibility/Avoidance

Young people aged 12-25 account for the highest prevalence and incidence of mental health disorders across the lifespan (McGorry, Bates & Birchwood, 2013). Onset of mental health disorders, of which anxiety disorders comprise a large portion (Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein & Hefner, 2007), are said to present shortly before or during typical college-going years (Kessler, Berglund, Demler, Merikangas & Walters, 2005). A broad body of behavioural researchers emphasize the functional role of fear and avoidance responding as central processes that may underlie and maintain anxiety in humans (Dymond, Bennett, Boyle, Roche & Schlund, in press; Luciano et al; 2014). As an alternative to experiential avoidance of undesirable psychological content, a considerable body research supports the efficacy of cognitive defusion (a behavioural technique derived from Acceptance and Commitment Therapy), as a treatment for anxiety related behaviour (Hayes et al., 2006). Despite the positive outcomes reported for defusion-based interventions, a functional account of the basic behavioural processes involved in cognitive defusion is not well established (Foody, Barnes-Holmes, Barnes-Holmes & Luciano, 2013). In attempt to expand on the extant compendium of defusion-related analogue component process studies, and shed further light on the behavioural processes that may be responsible for successful defusion outcomes, the current research examined the differential impact of a brief cognitive defusion exercise, (delivered in two distinct formats) on explicit, self-report measures of state anxiety, experiential avoidance and emotional discomfort, believability and willingness to engage with distressful thoughts. In pursuit of this goal, two experiments were conducted with a non-clinical sample of university students (N=80). Both of the experiments employed a similar procedural sequence and examined the same defusion exercise (the Hands as Thoughts exercise by Harris, (2009)), but differed in terms of the format by which the exercise was delivered, as well as the outcome measures used to assess its effects. At the beginning of both of the experiments, a stress induction paradigm was utilized to experimentally induce distress using a time-based mathematical task, paired with a deceptive statement regarding a previous cohort’s performance of the task. Immediately following the distress induction phase, participants were instructed to discriminate a single self-referential statement (i.e. a verbal stimulus) related to the dominant thought/emotion that they experienced following the math task. This self-referential statement represented the target stimulus with which the defusion exercise would be conducted. Following this, participants in the intervention condition were exposed to the defusion exercise. Alternatively, participants in the control condition were exposed to a distraction-based task. In Experiment 1 (N=55), which employed a 2 × 2 factorial design, instructions pertaining to the defusion exercise were delivered by the experimenter who modelled the exercise along with participants. Defusion impact/outcomes were assessed using pre- and post-measures of state anxiety and psychological inflexibility/experiential avoidance. Participants exposed to the defusion exercise/intervention (n=36) reported a significant reduction in state anxiety and psychological inflexibility/avoidance from pre- to post-intervention. Control group participants who were exposed to a distraction-based control task (n=19) also reported a significant reduction in state anxiety and psychological inflexibility/avoidance from pre- to post-control task. No significant difference was detected between the control and intervention groups in terms of the within-group reductions in psychological inflexibility/avoidance. However, there was a significant between-groups difference regarding the within-group reductions in state anxiety; participants in the intervention condition reported a superior reduction in state anxiety to those in the control condition. In Experiment 2 (N=35), which employed a 2 × 2 factorial design, instructions pertaining to the cognitive defusion exercise were delivered audibly via an audio-speaker. In addition to pre- and post-measures of state anxiety and psychological inflexibility/avoidance, impact was further assessed using measures of emotional discomfort, believability and willingness to engage with the self-referential thought/emotion (verbal stimulus), in an effort to further examine the potential processes of change. Participants exposed to the defusion intervention (n=19) reported a significant reduction in state anxiety from pre- to post-intervention. While a slight reduction in psychological inflexibility/avoidance was observed, this reduction was not statistically significant. Similarly, participants reported slight reductions in emotional discomfort and believability, and minimal increases in willingness to engage with the self-referential thoughts, however these changes were not statistically significant. An alternative control task to the one employed in the Experiment 1 was utilized in Experiment 2, whereby participants were requested to employ the typical strategies that would normally use to manage unwanted psychological content. Similar to the effects observed in the intervention condition, control group participants (n=16) reported a significant reduction in state anxiety post the control task. A slight pre-to-post reduction in psychological inflexibility/avoidance was observed, however the reduction was not statically significant. Slightly reduced levels of emotional discomfort and believability, and slightly increased levels of willingness to engage with self-statements were reported, however these changes were not statistically significant. Findings pertaining to both experiments are discussed in relation to those reported in previous analog component process studies. A discussion of the basic behavioural processes that may have moderated these outcomes is also provided. To the author’s knowledge, no previous empirical research has examined the Hands as Thoughts defusion exercise (Harris, 2009) in isolation from other defusion exercises, thus, a discussion of the basic processes in that may mediate the outcomes of this research may not necessarily apply to other ACT-based defusion exercises, due to the variation of procedural elements involved across different defusion techniques. Behaviour-analytic research surrounding the concept of defusion is not mature, and there remains a deficit of knowledge, and indeed discussion, as to the basic behavioural processes that underlie the concept. The term defusion is somewhat problematic as it is appears to refer to a set of outcomes, which are moderated by an unknown set of behavioural processes, as well as to a number of different therapeutic methodologies. Thus, despite their clinical utility, defusion-based therapeutic methods/techniques are currently being applied with limited precision (Assaz, Roche, Kanter & Oshiro, in press). In addition to extending the current program of empirical research in the area, the present research hopes to contribute to discussions surrounding the behavioural processes that may moderate defusion outcomes from a behaviour-analytic perspective, whilst also considering the procedural limitations of this research, and offering suggestions for future examinations in this area

Patterns of pleasure--the design and development of customer satisfaction

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, 1994.Vita.Includes bibliographical references (leaves [130-133]).by Douglas W. Lamm.M.S

Earth as Interface: Exploring chemical senses with Multisensory HCI Design for Environmental Health Communication

As environmental problems intensify, the chemical senses -that is smell and taste, are the most relevantsenses to evidence them.As such, environmental exposure vectors that can reach human beings comprise air,food, soil and water[1].Within this context, understanding the link between environmental exposures andhealth[2]is crucial to make informed choices, protect the environment and adapt to new environmentalconditions[3].Smell and taste lead therefore to multi-sensorial experiences which convey multi-layered information aboutlocal and global events[4]. However, these senses are usually absent when those problems are represented indigital systems. The multisensory HCIdesign framework investigateschemical sense inclusion withdigital systems[5]. Ongoing efforts tackledigitalization of smell and taste for digital delivery, transmission or substitution [6]. Despite experimentsproved technological feasibility, its dissemination depends on relevant applicationdevelopment[7].This thesis aims to fillthose gaps by demonstratinghow chemical senses provide the means to link environment and health based on scientific andgeolocation narratives [8], [9],[10]. We present a Multisensory HCI design process which accomplished symbolicdisplaying smell and taste and led us to a new multi-sensorial interaction system presented herein. We describe the conceptualization, design and evaluation of Earthsensum, an exploratory case study project.Earthsensumoffered to 16 participants in the study, environmental smell and taste experiences about real geolocations to participants of the study. These experiences were represented digitally using mobilevirtual reality (MVR) and mobile augmented reality (MAR). Its technologies bridge the real and digital Worlds through digital representations where we can reproduce the multi-sensorial experiences. Our study findings showed that the purposed interaction system is intuitive and can lead not only to a betterunderstanding of smell and taste perception as also of environmental problems. Participants comprehensionabout the link between environmental exposures and health was successful and they would recommend thissystem as education tools. Our conceptual design approach was validated and further developments wereencouraged.In this thesis,we demonstratehow to applyMultisensory HCI methodology to design with chemical senses. Weconclude that the presented symbolic representation model of smell and taste allows communicatingtheseexperiences on digital platforms. Due to its context-dependency, MVR and MAR platforms are adequatetechnologies to be applied for this purpose.Future developments intend to explore further the conceptual approach. These developments are centredon the use of the system to induce hopefully behaviourchange. Thisthesisopens up new application possibilities of digital chemical sense communication,Multisensory HCI Design and environmental health communication.À medida que os problemas ambientais se intensificam, os sentidos químicos -isto é, o cheiroe sabor, são os sentidos mais relevantes para evidenciá-los. Como tais, os vetores de exposição ambiental que podem atingir os seres humanos compreendem o ar, alimentos, solo e água [1]. Neste contexto, compreender a ligação entre as exposições ambientais e a saúde [2] é crucial para exercerescolhas informadas, proteger o meio ambiente e adaptar a novas condições ambientais [3]. O cheiroe o saborconduzemassima experiências multissensoriais que transmitem informações de múltiplas camadas sobre eventos locais e globais [4]. No entanto, esses sentidos geralmente estão ausentes quando esses problemas são representados em sistemas digitais. A disciplina do design de Interação Humano-Computador(HCI)multissensorial investiga a inclusão dossentidos químicos em sistemas digitais [9]. O seu foco atual residena digitalização de cheirose sabores para o envio, transmissão ou substituiçãode sentidos[10]. Apesar dasexperimentaçõescomprovarem a viabilidade tecnológica, a sua disseminação está dependentedo desenvolvimento de aplicações relevantes [11]. Estatese pretendepreencher estas lacunas ao demonstrar como os sentidos químicos explicitama interconexãoentre o meio ambiente e a saúde, recorrendo a narrativas científicas econtextualizadasgeograficamente[12], [13], [14]. Apresentamos uma metodologiade design HCImultissensorial que concretizouum sistema de representação simbólica de cheiro e sabor e nos conduziu a um novo sistema de interação multissensorial, que aqui apresentamos. Descrevemos o nosso estudo exploratório Earthsensum, que integra aconceptualização, design e avaliação. Earthsensumofereceu a 16participantes do estudo experiências ambientais de cheiro e sabor relacionadas com localizações geográficasreais. Essas experiências foram representadas digitalmente através derealidade virtual(VR)e realidade aumentada(AR).Estas tecnologias conectamo mundo real e digital através de representações digitais onde podemos reproduzir as experiências multissensoriais. Os resultados do nosso estudo provaramque o sistema interativo proposto é intuitivo e pode levar não apenas a uma melhor compreensão da perceção do cheiroe sabor, como também dos problemas ambientais. O entendimentosobre a interdependência entre exposições ambientais e saúde teve êxitoe os participantes recomendariam este sistema como ferramenta para aeducação. A nossa abordagem conceptual foi positivamentevalidadae novos desenvolvimentos foram incentivados. Nesta tese, demonstramos como aplicar metodologiasde design HCImultissensorialpara projetar com ossentidos químicos. Comprovamosque o modelo apresentado de representação simbólica do cheiroe do saborpermite comunicar essas experiênciasem plataformas digitais. Por serem dependentesdocontexto, as plataformas de aplicações emVR e AR são tecnologias adequadaspara este fim.Desenvolvimentos futuros pretendem aprofundar a nossa abordagemconceptual. Em particular, aspiramos desenvolvera aplicaçãodo sistema para promover mudanças de comportamento. Esta tese propõenovas possibilidades de aplicação da comunicação dos sentidos químicos em plataformas digitais, dedesign multissensorial HCI e de comunicação de saúde ambiental

Modification of Stimulation Seeking Behavior in Psychopaths using Hypnotic Sensory Imagery Conditioning

Recent theorizing has postulated that there exists for every individual an optimal level of arousal. Deviations from this optimal state produce discomfort which motivates behaviors aimed at remediation. Potential causes of underarousal include the attenuation of perceptual input and excessively rapid habituation to sensory input. Both of these processes have been linked dynamically to the psychopathic condition. Presumably, in the context of restricted opportunities for involvement in highly stimulating activities, the psychopathic individual attempts to alleviate the stress caused by chronic sensory deprivation through participation in illegal behaviors. The present investigation has attempted to clarify the dynamic picture with regards to psychopathy and the attenuation of sensation. It has further attempted to evaluate a therapeutic regimen designed to enhance the psychopath\u27s perceptual sensitivity and thereby reduce his excessive reliance on stimulation-seeking activities. Experimental psychopathic and non-psychopathic subjects from the Minnesota State Reformatory were exposed to a three-week sensory imagery conditioning program which employed both self-hypnosis and heterohypnosis in order to facilitate the relaxation response and conditioning effect. Subsequent evaluation was made of changes in repressive perceptual tendencies, stimulation-seeking behavior, internal- external locus of control, and psychopathic orientation. The results indicate that, among incarcerated subjects, repression does not appear to be a consistent distinguishing characteristic of psychopaths. The results further indicate that the experimental procedure is capable of fostering a less repressive perceptual style and a consequent diminution of stimulation-seeking activity, with these changes being generally more pronounced for the non-psychopathic subjects. The changes, however, tended to be either not enduring or did not generalize in a way which affected global measures of psychopathic orientation. An additional finding was that the extent of practice in autohypnosis tended to be unrelated in any consistent fashion to the changes observed. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for a psycho-dynamic theory of psychopathy, the appropriateness of the measures employed, possible modifications in the experimental procedure which might enhance change and facilitate accurate assessment, and recommendations for relevant future research

Forgiveness in Two Minds: Understanding Forgiveness Through Dual-Process Theory

In this thesis, I examined the relevance of dual-process theory to understanding forgiveness. Specifically, I argued that the internal conflict experienced by laypersons when forgiving (or finding themselves unable to forgive) and the discrepancies between existing definitions of forgiveness can currently be best understood through the lens of dual-process theory. Dual-process theory holds that individuals engage in two broad forms of mental processing corresponding to two systems, here referred to as System 1 and System 2. System 1 processing is automatic, unconscious, and operates through learned associations and heuristics. System 2 processing is effortful, conscious, and operates through rule-based and hypothetical thinking. Different definitions of forgiveness amongst both lay persons and scholars may reflect different processes within each system. Further, lay experiences with internal conflict concerning forgiveness may frequently result from processes within each system leading to different cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses. The study conducted for this thesis tested the hypotheses that processing within System 1 can directly affect one's likelihood to forgive, and that this effect is moderated by System 2 processing. I used subliminal conditioning to manipulate System 1 processing by creating positive or negative conditioned attitudes towards a hypothetical transgressor. I used working memory load (WML) to inhibit System 2 processing amongst half of the participants. The conditioning phase of the study failed and so no conclusions could be drawn regarding the roles of System 1 and System 2 in forgiveness. The implications of dual-process theory for forgiveness research and clinical practice, and directions for future research are discussed

THE IMPACT OF IMPLICIT MOTIVES ON THE BUSINESS TO BUSINESS DECISION MAKING PROCESS

To sum up, this research presents various novelties and significant contributions to knowledge. First time a complete coding and decoding process in a B2B decision making situation in a controlled environment was done. The coding and decoding procedure was based on a setup with relevant factors like colours and contrast, form and design and different surfaces and look of materials. The novelty of the research is that there is clear evidence for a limited role of rational decision making in the business to business decision making process. From the perspective of the homo economicus clear non-rational drivers were identified. The hypotheses about the interplay of implicit motives and business to business decision making could be confirmed in personal, management and group decisions. In addition, marketing experts emphasised the importance and potential impacts for future business to business marketing.Abstract THE IMPACT OF IMPLICIT MOTIVES ON THE BUSINESS TO BUSINESS DECISION MAKING PROCESS Christian Chlupsa The purpose of this thesis is to understand how implicit processes determine individual and organisational behaviour in the context of business to business (B2B) decision making. A broad literature review suggests that implicit cognition has a significantly more powerful influence than therefore assumed. The author calls for further research into the motivations driving professional behaviour in B2B situations as new study challenges the classical economic theory of the homo economicus, and focuses on the role of implicit motives as a possible driver. As a first objective, the study attempts to reveal a typical structure of implicit motives based on hierarchy and gender. The second objective is to delineate the interplay between the implicit motives and the decision making process in B2B. The third objective is to examine the consequences and implications for business to business marketing. The methodology is based on an interdisciplinary mixed method approach. To address the gaps in existing knowledge, an experiment and a survey (n=175) in different sectors were conducted. For the analysis, a variety of techniques such as operant motive tests, cluster- and multivariate analysis were employed to analyse the empirical response. Semi-structured qualitative in-depth interviews (n=8) were carried out to detect the consequences and the implications of the new findings for practice. The findings of the research indicate that marketing is much more a selective communication as assumed. The impact of marketing communication is not always consciously perceived by customers and the most part is implicit. In conclusion, there seems to be an interplay between implicit motives and the B2B decision making process. Hypotheses about the interplay of implicit motives and business to business decision making were confirmed in personal, management and group decision experiments. As a contribution to existing theory on the subject, it can be postulated that rational choice in B2B decision making may play a limited role. In addition marketing experts from various industry sectors emphasise the importance and the potential impacts for future B2B marketing. Experts stress the need to reveal the real motivational drivers in marketing communication

Empirical evidence of a chronic pain schema using a recall task

Study group from the Thunder Bay region of Northwestern OntarioThe purpose of the proposed investigation was to provide empirical evidence of a pain schema. The effect of various durations of pain experienced on pain schema development was explored. Fifty-one pain patients were recruited from the university community, the Thunder Bay community, and area hospitals. Pain patients were divided into three groups based on pain duration. In addition, sixteen healthy control subjects were recruited from the Thunder Bay community. Each participant completed a free recall task. We hypothesized that patients who had suffered chronic pain syndromes the longest would demonstrate a greater recall bias toward pain-related stimuli. Results failed to support the hypothesis. There were no differences found across pain groups in the number or percentage of pain words recalled. However, pain patients did demonstrate more cognitive bias towards pain-related stimuli overall compared to control participants. Results clearly provide support for the existence of a pain-related self-schema in pain patients. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the prevention, assessment, and management of chronic pain

The relationship between wellness, emotion regulation, and relapse in adult outpatient substance abuse clients

Relapse prevention is a critical factor in recovery from substance abuse problems (NIDA, 2009). Treatment has been shown to influence positive recovery trajectories, yet relapse is a considerable complication both during and after treatment (Doweiko, 2002; Miller, Zweben, & Johnson, 2005). Identifying specific factors that can reduce relapse and improve the well-being of persons in recovery is a significant need. Based on the existing literature, holistic wellness and the ability to emotionally self-regulate may be powerful factors in decreasing the prevalence and severity of addiction relapse. However, to date, no research has been conducted examining a holistic model of wellness as a predictor of relapse in addictions populations. The aspects of emotion regulation and emotion management strategies that affect relapse are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to address a significant gap in the substance abuse treatment literature by exploring the relationships among wellness, emotion regulation, and relapse. Correlation analyses yielded negative correlations between wellness factors and difficulties in emotion regulation, and wellness factors and relapse. Positive correlations were found between wellness and reappraisal, difficulties in emotion regulation and suppression, and difficulties in emotion regulation and relapse. Logistic regression analyses indicated that Total Wellness, suppression, Social Self wellness, and Physical Self wellness were predictive of whether or not participants relapsed. Total Wellness, reappraisal, suppression, and difficulties in emotion regulation were predictive of total relapse days. Social Self and Physical Self wellness were related to decreased relapse days and Creative Self wellness was associated with increases in relapse days. The hypothesis which stated that difficulties in emotion regulation and emotion regulation strategies would mediate the relationship between wellness and relapse and wellness and total relapse days was not supported. Finally, Total Wellness, difficulties in emotion regulation, and emotion regulation strategies explained variance in total relapse days above and beyond variance accounted for by socio-demographic variables. Future research should further explore the relationships between wellness, emotion regulation, and relapse by examining a variety of substance use behaviors as outcomes, utilizing additional measures of emotion regulation, and incorporating longitudinal research designs