The different dimensions of livelihood impacts of Payments for Environmentals Services (PES) schemes: A systematic review

Through a systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature, this paper analyzes evidence of the livelihood impacts of Payments for Environmental Services (PES). Forty-six studies assessed PES livelihood impacts. The assessments presented more positive livelihood impacts than negative ones, focusing on financial benefits. Non-monetary and non-material impacts of PES were largely understudied. Most reviews focused on ES providers, hindering the understanding of broader societal impacts. The review yielded examples where participants lost from their participation or where improvements in one livelihood dimension paralleled deterioration in another. Consequently, we identified key research gaps in: i) understanding the social and cultural impacts of PES, ii) evaluating environmental and economic additionality from improving other ES at the expense of cultural ones, iii) and assessing PES impacts in terms of trade-offs between multiple livelihood dimensions. Moreover, increased knowledge is needed on the impact of PES on changes in household expenditure and choice, and on trade-offs between household income and inequality in ES provider communities. Finally, if PES schemes are implemented to sustainably improve livelihoods, targeting disaggregated populations, understanding equity and social power relations within and between ES providers and users, and better monitoring and evaluation systems that consider locally relevant livelihood dimensions are needed

THE DYNAMICS OF INTERNET-BASED MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS IN CHINA: YAHOO! CHINA CASE

Abstract              This paper aims to analyze the dynamics of internet-based multinational companies in China with a special focus on the discussion of the factors behind the closure of Yahoo! Inc.’s business operations in China by 2015. In order to answer this research question, this paper uses a qualitative method based on literature study as a research method. Based on the theoretical approach offered by obsolescing bargain theory and Porter's five forces model, this research conclude that the Yahoo! Inc.’s withdrawal from the Chinese market due to the accumulation of the increasingly stringent Chinese Government regulation on the internet and the increasingly competitive domestic internet industry. Strict regulation is representation of the "shift of bargaining advantage" while market competitiveness is evidence of Yahoo! Inc.’s lack of competitive advantage.Keywords: China, Internet, Multinational Corporations, Yahoo! Inc

Long-run impacts of China's WTO accession on farm-nonfarm income inequality and rural poverty

Many fear China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) will impoverish its rural people by way of greater import competition in its agricultural markets. Anderson, Huang, and Ianchovichina explore that possibility bearing in mind that, even if producer prices of some (land-intensive) farm products fall, prices of other (labor-intensive) farm products could rise. Also, the removal of restrictions on exports of textiles and clothing could boost town and village enterprises, so demand for unskilled labor for nonfarm work in rural areas may grow even if demand for farm labor in aggregate falls. New estimates, from the global economywide numerical simulation model known as GTAP, of the likely changes in agricultural and other product prices as a result of WTO accession are drawn on to examine empirically the factor reward implications of China's WTO accession. The results suggest farm-nonfarm and Western-Eastern income inequality may well rise in China but rural-urban income inequality need not. The authors conclude with some policy suggestions for alleviating any pockets of farm household poverty that may emerge as a result of WTO accession.Economic Theory&Research,Agricultural Knowledge&Information Systems,Labor Policies,Environmental Economics&Policies,Markets and Market Access,Environmental Economics&Policies,Crops&Crop Management Systems,Economic Theory&Research,World Trade Organization,Livestock&Animal Husbandry

Agriculture and Agricultural Policies in China and India Post-Uruguay Round

Both India and China, as participants in the Uruguay Round, have had the Agreement on Agriculture (URAA) before them as they continued to reform their agricultural and trade policies over recent years. China did not join the WTO until December 2001, but it has nonetheless been undertaking reforms and has entered into substantial commitments to further reform its farm sector by end-2004, when all other countriesÂ’ UR commitments are due to be fully implemented. This paper reviews the progress expected to be made over the ten years since 1995 in these two populous developing countries. It summarizes their structural adjustments to production and trade as a consequence of their (and othersÂ’) economic growth and policy changes, before focusing on the nature and extent of the agricultural and other policy reforms themselves. It concludes by drawing out the implications of these developments for the roles these countries might play in international agricultural markets and in the agricultural negotiations of the Doha Round.

Urbanisation and Fiscal Risks in China

China has witnessed rapid urbanisation over the past three decades. It has been generally successful in mobilising resources and providing the infrastructure that cities need to grow their economies. The central government has played a major role in China’s urbanisation through setting the overall development direction, land granting, and policy formulation. However, the responsibilities of infrastructure financing have been gradually shifted to local governments, and consequently, local budgetary systems face substantial funding challenges. While the decentralised structure of Chinese politics provides strong incentives for local officials to take the lead in urbanising China, fiscal institutions place heavy financial burdens on local governments. This thesis studies two major problems that arose from China’s urbanisation process. In terms of theoretical contribution, the thesis both advances the theories of Chinese style fiscal federalism and provides new evidence to enhance its explaining power. The first study is on China’s infrastructure financing and local government debt. It finds that local government debt for infrastructure is positively affected by the land demand from the private sector. Furthermore, land finance is positively related to the level of local government debt. The results reveal that the visible hand of local governments works creatively to meet infrastructure development targets handed down by the ‘iron hand’ of the central government. The second study is on local government financing vehicles’ (LGFVs) borrowing costs and land finance. It finds that local governments with higher land leasing revenue could bring down the borrowing costs of local LGFVs, while a higher ratio of land revenue to fiscal revenue would raise LGFVs’ borrowing costs. A booming local land market would push up the value of land assets held by LGFVs and therefore strengthen its ‘collateral channel’, enabling LGFVs to borrow at a lower cost. The thesis’ findings can help investors better identify the risks associated with LGFV bonds and enable local government borrowing at a lower cost

Three Generations of Forest Peoples’ Empowerment in Indonesia: Process Towards Sustainable and Equitable Forest Management

Human activities that alter land cover have destroyed natural ecosystems and caused conflict. In Indonesia, community-based forest management (CBFM) policies implemented by the government seek to empower communities, ameliorate forest conversion, and reduce environmental conflict. This article critically assesses contemporary CBFM policy in Indonesia by analyzing its history and outcomes through policy analysis. To systematically review previous literature on CBFM, this research uses the PRISMA method. It finds that communities are often able to manage forest areas sustainably through sociocultural systems that combine management customs and culture. Empowerment through CBFM policy therefore promises to promote community subsistence, equity, and security regarding forest management. However, granting total resource rights to communities can result in land conversion unless managerial safeguards are in place. Many studies find that the clarity of land boundaries, the consistency of regulation, and the partiality of land governance drive CBFM program success. To facilitate land governance for the successful implementation of Indonesian social forestry, communities need access rights, authority to manage forests, and sufficient knowledge transfer to participate in formal forest management. In contrast to previous iterations of CBFM in Indonesia, current social forestry policy acknowledges these governance needs and seeks to implement them