Cognitive load theory and multimedia learning, task characteristics, and learning engagement: The current state of the art

Kirschner, F., Kester, L., & Corbalan, G. (2011). Cognitive load theory and multimedia learning, task characteristics, and learner engagement: The current state of the art. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1-4. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.003This special issue consists of 16 empirical papers, as well as a discussion based on the Third International Cognitive Load Theory Conference held at the Open Universiteit (Heerlen, The Netherlands) in 2009. All papers focus on improving instructional design from a cognitive load theory (CLT: Sweller, 1988; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998; Van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005) perspective. They cover a wide variety of topics in which learner characteristics, tasks characteristics, and the interaction between both are studied in, new, innovative, but also traditional ways, thereby providing an overview of the current state of the art on CLT research. The overarching goal of all studies is to gain more understanding and insight into the optimal conditions under which learning can be successful, and students will be able to apply their acquired knowledge and skills in new or familiar problem solving situations. Together, the papers comprise three ways in which this overarching goal is reached: (1) by studying multimedia learning environments, (2) by studying different characteristics of a learning task and, (3) by studying how learners can be actively engaged in the learning process. Although, the research focus of most papers fit nicely within these research topics, some overlap is inevitable. The categorization has been made on the basis of the most prominent research focus and findings of each study

Editorial: State of the art research into Cognitive Load Theory

Ayres, P., & Van Gog, T. (2009). Editorial: State of the art research into Cognitive Load Theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 253-257

An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks

Cognitive load theory is intended to provide instructional strategies derived from experimental, cognitive load effects. Each effect is based on our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, primarily the limited capacity and duration of a human working memory. These limitations are ameliorated by changes in long-term memory associated with learning. Initially, cognitive load theory's view of human cognitive architecture was assumed to apply to all categories of information. Based on Geary's (Educational Psychologist 43, 179-195 2008; 2011) evolutionary account of educational psychology, this interpretation of human cognitive architecture requires amendment. Working memory limitations may be critical only when acquiring novel information based on culturally important knowledge that we have not specifically evolved to acquire. Cultural knowledge is known as biologically secondary information. Working memory limitations may have reduced significance when acquiring novel

Towards a framework for attention cueing in instructional animations: Guidelines for research and design

This paper examines the transferability of successful cueing approaches from text and static visualization research to animations. Theories of visual attention and learning as well as empirical evidence for the instructional effectiveness of attention cueing are reviewed and, based on Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning, a framework was developed for classifying three functions for cueing: (1) selection—cues guide attention to specific locations, (2) organization—cues emphasize structure, and (3) integration—cues explicate relations between and within elements. The framework was used to structure the discussion of studies on cueing in animations. It is concluded that attentional cues may facilitate the selection of information in animations and sometimes improve learning, whereas organizational and relational cueing requires more consideration on how to enhance understanding. Consequently, it is suggested to develop cues that work in animations rather than borrowing effective cues from static representations. Guidelines for future research on attention cueing in animations are presented

Gaze transitions when learning with multimedia

Eye tracking methodology is used to examine the influence of interactive multimedia on the allocation of visual attention and its dynamics during learning. We hypothesized that an interactive simulation promotes more organized switching of attention between different elements of multimedia learning material, e.g., textual description and pictorial visualization. Participants studied a description of an algorithm accompanied either by an interactive simulation, self-paced animation, or static illustration. Using a novel framework for entropy-based comparison of gaze transition matrices, results showed that the interactive simulation elicited more careful visual investigation of the learning material as well as reading of the problem description through to its completion

Exploring the potential of physical visualizations

The goal of an external representation of abstract data is to provide insights and convey information about the structure of the underlying data, therefore helping people execute tasks and solve problems more effectively. Apart from the popular and well-studied digital visualization of abstract data there are other scarcely studied perceptual channels to represent data such as taste, sound or haptic. My thesis focuses on the latter and explores in which ways human knowledge and ability to sense and interact with the physical non-digital world can be used to enhance the way in which people analyze and explore abstract data. Emerging technological progress in digital fabrication allow an easy, fast and inexpensive production of physical objects. Machines such as laser cutters and 3D printers enable an accurate fabrication of physical visualizations with different form factors as well as materials. This creates, for the first time, the opportunity to study the potential of physical visualizations in a broad range. The thesis starts with the description of six prototypes of physical visualizations from static examples to digitally augmented variations to interactive artifacts. Based on these explorations, three promising areas of potential for physical visualizations were identified and investigated in more detail: perception & memorability, communication & collaboration, and motivation & self-reflection. The results of two studies in the area of information recall showed that participants who used a physical bar chart retained more information compared to the digital counterpart. Particularly facts about maximum and minimum values were be remembered more efficiently, when they were perceived from a physical visualization. Two explorative studies dealt with the potential of physical visualizations regarding communication and collaboration. The observations revealed the importance on the design and aesthetic of physical visualizations and indicated a great potential for their utilization by audiences with less interest in technology. The results also exposed the current limitations of physical visualizations, especially in contrast to their well-researched digital counterparts. In the area of motivation we present the design and evaluation of the Activity Sculptures project. We conducted a field study, in which we investigated physical visualizations of personal running activity. It was discovered that these sculptures generated curiosity and experimentation regarding the personal running behavior as well as evoked social dynamics such as discussions and competition. Based on the findings of the aforementioned studies this thesis concludes with two theoretical contributions on the design and potential of physical visualizations. On the one hand, it proposes a conceptual framework for material representations of personal data by describing a production and consumption lens. The goal is to encourage artists and designers working in the field of personal informatics to harness the interactive capabilities afforded by digital fabrication and the potential of material representations. On the other hand we give a first classification and performance rating of physical variables including 14 dimensions grouped into four categories. This complements the undertaking of providing researchers and designers with guidance and inspiration to uncover alternative strategies for representing data physically and building effective physical visualizations.Um aus abstrakten Daten konkrete Aussagen, komplexe Zusammenhänge oder überraschende Einsichten gewinnen zu können, müssen diese oftmals in eine, für den Menschen, anschauliche Form gebracht werden. Eine weitverbreitete und gut erforschte Möglichkeiten ist die Darstellung von Daten in visueller Form. Weniger erforschte Varianten sind das Verkörpern von Daten durch Geräusche, Gerüche oder physisch ertastbare Objekte und Formen. Diese Arbeit konzentriert sich auf die letztgenannte Variante und untersucht wie die menschlichen Fähigkeiten mit der physischenWelt zu interagieren dafür genutzt werden können, das Analysieren und Explorieren von Daten zu unterstützen. Der technische Fortschritt in der digitalen Fertigung vereinfacht und beschleunigt die Produktion von physischen Objekten und reduziert dabei deren Kosten. Lasercutter und 3D Drucker ermöglichen beispielsweise eine maßgerechte Fertigung physischer Visualisierungen verschiedenster Ausprägungen hinsichtlich Größe und Material. Dadurch ergibt sich zum ersten Mal die Gelegenheit, das Potenzial von physischen Visualisierungen in größerem Umfang zu erforschen. Der erste Teil der Arbeit skizziert insgesamt sechs Prototypen physischer Visualisierungen, wobei sowohl statische Beispiele beschrieben werden, als auch Exemplare die durch digital Inhalte erweitert werden oder dynamisch auf Interaktionen reagieren können. Basierend auf den Untersuchungen dieser Prototypen wurden drei vielversprechende Bereiche für das Potenzial physischer Visualisierungen ermittelt und genauer untersucht: Wahrnehmung & Einprägsamkeit, Kommunikation & Zusammenarbeit sowie Motivation & Selbstreflexion. Die Ergebnisse zweier Studien zur Wahrnehmung und Einprägsamkeit von Informationen zeigten, dass sich Teilnehmer mit einem physischen Balkendiagramm an deutlich mehr Informationen erinnern konnten, als Teilnehmer, die eine digitale Visualisierung nutzten. Insbesondere Fakten über Maximal- und Minimalwerte konnten besser im Gedächtnis behalten werden, wenn diese mit Hilfe einer physischen Visualisierung wahrgenommen wurden. Zwei explorative Studien untersuchten das Potenzial von physischen Visualisierungen im Bereich der Kommunikation mit Informationen sowie der Zusammenarbeit. Die Ergebnisse legten einerseits offen wie wichtig ein ausgereiftes Design und die Ästhetik von physischen Visualisierungen ist, deuteten anderseits aber auch darauf hin, dass Menschen mit geringem Interesse an neuen Technologien eine interessante Zielgruppe darstellen. Die Studien offenbarten allerdings auch die derzeitigen Grenzen von physischen Visualisierungen, insbesondere im Vergleich zu ihren gut erforschten digitalen Pendants. Im Bereich der Motivation und Selbstreflexion präsentieren wir die Entwicklung und Auswertung des Projekts Activity Sculptures. In einer Feldstudie über drei Wochen erforschten wir physische Visualisierungen, die persönliche Laufdaten repräsentieren. Unsere Beobachtungen und die Aussagen der Teilnehmer ließen darauf schließen, dass die Skulpturen Neugierde weckten und zum Experimentieren mit dem eigenen Laufverhalten einluden. Zudem konnten soziale Dynamiken entdeckt werden, die beispielsweise durch Diskussion aber auch Wettbewerbsgedanken zum Ausdruck kamen. Basierend auf den gewonnen Erkenntnissen durch die erwähnten Studien schließt diese Arbeit mit zwei theoretischen Beiträgen, hinsichtlich des Designs und des Potenzials von physischen Visualisierungen, ab. Zuerst wird ein konzeptionelles Framework vorgestellt, welches die Möglichkeiten und den Nutzen physischer Visualisierungen von persönlichen Daten veranschaulicht. Für Designer und Künstler kann dies zudem als Inspirationsquelle dienen, wie das Potenzial neuer Technologien, wie der digitalen Fabrikation, zur Darstellung persönlicher Daten in physischer Form genutzt werden kann. Des Weiteren wird eine initiale Klassifizierung von physischen Variablen vorgeschlagen mit insgesamt 14 Dimensionen, welche in vier Kategorien gruppiert sind. Damit vervollständigen wir unser Ziel, Forschern und Designern Inspiration und Orientierung zu bieten, um neuartige und effektvolle physische Visualisierungen zu erschaffen

Multimedia Computer-based Training And Learning: The Role Of Referential Connections In Supporting Cognitive Learning Outcomes

Multimedia theory has generated a number of principles and guidelines to support computer-based training (CBT) design. However, the cognitive processes responsible for learning, from which these principles and guidelines stem from, are only indirectly derived by focusing on cognitive learning outcome differences. Unfortunately, the effects that cognitive processes have on learning are based on the assumption that cognitive learning outcomes are indicative of certain cognitive processes. Such circular reasoning is what prompted this dissertation. Specifically, this dissertation looked at the notion of referential connections, which is a prevalent cognitive process that is thought to support knowledge acquisition in a multimedia CBT environment. Referential connections, and the related cognitive mechanisms supporting them, are responsible for creating associations between verbal and visual information; as a result, their impact on multimedia learning is theorized to be far reaching. Therefore, one of the main goals of this dissertation was to address the issue of indirectly assessing cognitive processes by directly measuring referential connections to (a) verify the presence of referential connections, and (b) to measure the extent to which referential connections affect cognitive learning outcomes. To achieve this goal, a complete review of the prevalent multimedia theories was brought fourth. The most important factors thought to be influencing referential connections were extracted and cataloged into variables that were manipulated, fixed, covaried, or randomized to empirically examine the link between referential connections and learning. Specifically, this dissertation manipulated referential connections by varying the temporal presentation of modalities and the color coding of instructional material. Manipulating the temporal presentation of modalities was achieved by either presenting modalities simultaneously or sequentially. Color coding manipulations capitalized on pre-attentive highlighting and pairing of elements (i.e., pairing text with corresponding visuals). As such, the computer-based training varied color coding on three levels: absence of color coding, color coding without pairing text and corresponding visual aids, and color coding that also paired text and corresponding visual aids. The modalities employed in the experiment were written text and static visual aids, and the computer-based training taught the principles of flight to naive participants. Furthermore, verbal and spatial aptitudes were used as covariates, as they consistently showed to affect learning. Overall, the manipulations were hypothesized to differentially affect referential connections and cognitive learning outcomes, thereby altering cognitive learning outcomes. Specifically, training with simultaneously presented modalities was hypothesized to be superior, in terms of referential connections and learning performance, to a successive presentation, and color coding modalities with pairing of verbal and visual correspondents was hypothesized to be superior to other forms of color coding. Finally, it was also hypothesized that referential connections would positively correlate with cognitive learning outcomes and, indeed, mediate the effects of temporal contiguity and color coding on learning. A total of 96 were randomly assigned to one of the six experimental groups, and were trained on the principles of flight. The key construct of referential connections was successfully measured with three methods. Cognitive learning outcomes were captured by a traditional declarative test and by two integrative (i.e., knowledge application) tests. Results showed that the two multimedia manipulation impacted cognitive learning outcomes and did so through corresponding changes of related referential connections (i.e., through mediation). Specifically, as predicted, referential connections mediated the impact of both temporal contiguity and color coding on lower- and higher-level cognitive learning outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed in relation to computer-based training design principles and guidelines. Specifically, theoretical implications focus on the contribution that referential connections have on multimedia learning theory, and practical implications are brought forth in terms of instructional design issues. Future research considerations are described as they relate to further exploring the role of referential connections within multimedia CBT paradigms