Neuroeconomics: How Neuroscience Can Inform Economics

Neuroeconomics uses knowledge about brain mechanisms to inform economic analysis, and roots economics in biology. It opens up the "black box" of the brain, much as organizational economics adds detail to the theory of the firm. Neuroscientists use many tools— including brain imaging, behavior of patients with localized brain lesions, animal behavior, and recording single neuron activity. The key insight for economics is that the brain is composed of multiple systems which interact. Controlled systems ("executive function") interrupt automatic ones. Emotions and cognition both guide decisions. Just as prices and allocations emerge from the interaction of two processes—supply and demand— individual decisions can be modeled as the result of two (or more) processes interacting. Indeed, "dual-process" models of this sort are better rooted in neuroscientific fact, and more empirically accurate, than single-process models (such as utility-maximization). We discuss how brain evidence complicates standard assumptions about basic preference, to include homeostasis and other kinds of state-dependence. We also discuss applications to intertemporal choice, risk and decision making, and game theory. Intertemporal choice appears to be domain-specific and heavily influenced by emotion. The simplified ß-d of quasi-hyperbolic discounting is supported by activation in distinct regions of limbic and cortical systems. In risky decision, imaging data tentatively support the idea that gains and losses are coded separately, and that ambiguity is distinct from risk, because it activates fear and discomfort regions. (Ironically, lesion patients who do not receive fear signals in prefrontal cortex are "rationally" neutral toward ambiguity.) Game theory studies show the effect of brain regions implicated in "theory of mind", correlates of strategic skill, and effects of hormones and other biological variables. Finally, economics can contribute to neuroscience because simple rational-choice models are useful for understanding highly-evolved behavior like motor actions that earn rewards, and Bayesian integration of sensorimotor information

An Investigation of Cognitive Implications in the Design of Computer Games

Computer games have been touted for their ability to engage players in cognitive activities (e.g., decision making, learning, planning, problem solving). By ‘computer game’ we mean any game that uses computational technology as its platform, regardless of the actual hardware or software; games on personal computers, tablets, game consoles, cellphones, or specialized equipment can all be called computer games. However, there remains much uncertainty regarding how to design computer games so that they support, facilitate, and promote the reflective, effortful, and conscious performance of cognitive activities. The goal of this dissertation is to relieve some of this uncertainty, so that the design of such computer games can become more systematic and less ad hoc. By understanding how different components of a computer game influence the resulting cognitive system, we can more consciously and systematically design computer games for the desired cognitive support. This dissertation synthesizes concepts from cognitive science, information science, learning science, human-computer interaction, and game design to create a conceptual design framework. The framework particularly focuses on the design of: gameplay, the player-game joint cognitive system, the interaction that mediates gameplay and the cognitive system, and the components of this interaction. Furthermore, this dissertation also includes a process by which researchers can explore the relationship between components of a computer game and the resulting cognitive system in a consistent, controlled, and precise manner. Using this process, three separate studies were conducted to provide empirical support for different aspects of the framework; these studies investigated how the design of rules, visual interface, and the core mechanic influence the resulting cognitive system. Overall then, the conceptual framework and three empirical studies presented in this dissertation provide designers with a greater understanding of how to systematically design computer games to provide the desired support for any cognitive activity

Promoting Learner Engagement through Interactive Digital Tools

Interactive digital tools and virtual learning spaces can be effective in engaging learners with language, content, and culture that promote language proficiency. However, the mere utilization of technology tools does not guarantee learner growth in language proficiency without careful attention to research-informed learning strategies and standards-based instructional design. Learning objectives and language functions drive instruction, and digital learning tools can provide differentiated learning opportunities and learner support that scaffold the learning process. The authors provide a review of the literature on technology integration in world language education as well as examples of popular digital tools designed to facilitate meaningful, interactive communication. Three digital tools, WeChat, iBook Author, and Spark Video, were chosen as exemplars as they provide varied and multiple instructional functions in all three modes of communication

State of Play of Digital Games for Empowerment and Inclusion: A Review of the Literature and Empirical Cases

This report presents the 'state of play' of knowledge of how digital games can work as empowerment tools to support social inclusion processes and policy. The report brings together for the first time a review of theoretical and empirical research in a variety of disciplines, especially from learning, social inclusion, e-inclusion and innovation studies to build a framework to help understanding of the potential of games for inclusion and empowerment. It uses this framework to analyse seven well-documented case studies from across the spectrum of digital games for empowerment and inclusion to understand between the factors contributing to their success or failure. It draws conclusions as to the principal challenges, identifies knowledge gaps, and recommends potential action by stakeholders to address these challenges.JRC.J.3-Information Societ

Using a Game-Like Procedure as a Test of Executive Functions in Children

Concept Formation (CF) is an important skill necessary for academic performance, everyday functioning, and lifelong achievements (Blair & Razza, 2007). CF difficulties have been associated with social disadvantage possibly due to reduced learning opportunities (Blair, 2002). CF difficulties have also been associated with certain neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism-spectrum disorder (Kim et al., 2020). Importantly, research has shown that early intervention can support development of CF skills and improve quality of life (Pasnak, 2006). Despite its importance there are few assessments suitable for children, and assessments available in the UK often advantage English-speaking examinees who are familiar with Western culture. The Alien Game was piloted by Pavitt (2017) and evidence was found to support its utility as a more culturally fair and child-friendly assessment of CF. This study aimed to further develop the Alien Game by improving the stimuli, developing a scoring procedure, and exploring concurrent and predictive validity. Thirty-four children aged 8-11 years took part in this second pilot study, and five measures of performance in the Alien Game were identified. Performance was not found to correlate with verbal abilities, and speaking English as a first language did not support performance. A significant correlation was found between WISC-IV Matrix Reasoning (Wechsler, 2003) and performance, providing evidence of concurrent validity. No relationship was found between performance in the Alien Game and scores obtained via teacher-rated CHEXI (Thorell & Nyberg, 2008), so predictive validity could not be established. Importantly, children appeared to be engaged with the game and provided positive feedback. Overall, these findings provide support for the Alien Game as a more culturally-fair and child-friendly measure of CF, which has clinical implications as an affordable and easy to administer screening tool. Early identification of CF difficulties can allow for targeted learning plans to be established to support children to develop this important skill

Design and Instantiation of an Interactive Multidimensional Ontology for Game Design Elements – a Design and Behavioral Approach

While games and play are commonly perceived as leisure tools, focus on the strategic implementation of isolated gameful elements outside of games has risen in recent years under the term gamification. Given their ease of implementation and impact in competitive games, a small set of game design elements, namely points, badges, and leaderboards, initially dominated research and practice. However, these elements reflect only a small group of components that game designers use to achieve positive outcomes in their systems. Current research has shifted towards focusing on the game design process instead of the isolated implementation of single elements under the term gameful design. But the problem of a tendency toward a monocultural selection of prominent design elements persists in-game and gameful design, preventing the method from reaching its full potential. This dissertation addresses this problem by designing and developing a digital, interactive game design element ontology that scholars and practitioners can use to make more informed and inspired decisions in creating gameful solutions to their problems. The first part of this work is concerned with the collation and development of the digital ontology. First, two datasets were collated from game design and gamification literature (game design elements and playing motivations). Next, four explorative studies were conducted to add user-relevant metadata and connect their items into an ontological structure. The first two studies use card sorting to assess game theory frameworks regarding their suitability as foundational categories for the game design element dataset and to gain an overview of different viewpoints from which categorizations can be derived. The second set of studies builds on an explorative method of matching dataset entries via their descriptive keywords to arrive at a connected graph. The first of these studies connects items of the playing motivations dataset with themselves, while the second connects them with an additional dataset of human needs. The first part closes with the documentation of the design and development of the tool Kubun, reporting on the outcome of its evaluation via iterative expert interviews and a field study. The results suggest that the tool serves its preset goals of affording intuitive browsing for dedicated searches and serendipitous findings. While the first part of this work reports on the top-down development process of the ontology and related navigation tool, the second part presents an in-depth research of specific learning-oriented game design elements to complement the overall research goal through a complementary bottom-up approach. Therein, two studies on learning-oriented game design elements are reported regarding their effect on performance, long-term learning outcome, and knowledge transfer. The studies are conducted with a game dedicated to teaching correct waste sorting. The first study focuses on a reward-based game design element in terms of its motivatory effect on perfect play. The second study evaluates two learning-enhancing game design elements, repeat, and look-up, in terms of their contribution to a long-term learning outcome. The comprehensive insights gained through the in-depth research manifest in the design of a module dedicated to reporting research outcomes in the ontology. The dissertation concludes with a discussion on the studies’ varying limitations and an outlook on pathways for future research

Consumer experiences in virtual reality: dimensions and appropriation operations of immersion

Masteroppgave i bedriftsøkonomi - Universitetet i Nordland, 201