Developing and Evaluating Visual Analogies to Support Insight and Creative Problem Solving

The primary aim of this thesis is to gain a richer understanding of visual analogies for insight problem solving, and, in particular, how they can be better developed to ensure their effectiveness as hints. While much work has explored the role of visual analogies in problem solving and their facilitative role, only a few studies have analysed how they could be designed. This thesis employs a mixed method consisting of a practice-led approach for studying how visual analogies can be designed and developed and an experimental research approach for testing their effectiveness as hints for solving visual insight problems

The nonlinearity of pupil diameter fluctuations in an insight task as criteria for detecting children who solve the problem from those who do not

Insights, characterized by sudden discoveries following unsuccessful problem-solving attempts, are fascinating phenomena. Dynamic systems perspectives argue that insight arises from self-organizing perceptual and motor processes. Entropy and fractal scaling are potential markers for emerging new and effective solutions. This study investigated whether specific features associated with self-organization in dynamical systems can distinguish between individuals who succeed and those who fail in solving insight tasks. To achieve this, we analyzed pupillary diameter fluctuations of children aged 6 to 12 during the 8-coin task, a well-established insight task. The participants were divided into two groups: successful (n = 24) and unsuccessful (n = 43) task completion. Entropy, determinism, recurrence ratio, and the β scaling exponent were estimated using Recurrence Quantification and Power Spectrum Density analyses. The results indicated that the solver group exhibited more significant uncertainty and lower predictability in pupillary diameter fluctuations before finding the solution. Recurrence Quantification Analysis revealed changes that went unnoticed by mean and standard deviation measures. However, the β scaling exponent did not differentiate between the two groups. These findings suggest that entropy and determinism in pupillary diameter fluctuations can identify early differences in problem-solving success. Further research is needed to determine the exclusive role of perceptual and motor activity in generating insights and investigate these results’ generalizability to other tasks and populations

Virtual Reality Games for Motor Rehabilitation

This paper presents a fuzzy logic based method to track user satisfaction without the need for devices to monitor users physiological conditions. User satisfaction is the key to any product’s acceptance; computer applications and video games provide a unique opportunity to provide a tailored environment for each user to better suit their needs. We have implemented a non-adaptive fuzzy logic model of emotion, based on the emotional component of the Fuzzy Logic Adaptive Model of Emotion (FLAME) proposed by El-Nasr, to estimate player emotion in UnrealTournament 2004. In this paper we describe the implementation of this system and present the results of one of several play tests. Our research contradicts the current literature that suggests physiological measurements are needed. We show that it is possible to use a software only method to estimate user emotion

Testing the Effects of Targeted Memory Reactivation during Rapid Eye Movement Sleep and Wakefulness on Problem-Solving

Anecdotal references and sayings attribute a beneficial effect of sleep on solving problems, especially if these are difficult. Currently scientific results are split. Some sleep research teams found beneficial effects on problem-solving, particularly for difficult problems (Sio et al, 2013). Other teams could not corroborate this (Landmann et al, 2016). Moreover, results indicate that sleeping after solving analogical problems facilitates the solution of logical problems after wakening (Monaghan et al, 2015). Sleep is a heterogenous process of distinguishable sleep stages (Rechtschaffen, 1968). Although studies keep providing new evidence for models and theories that postulate how subconscious sleep-facilitated improvements in learning, memory and problem-solving occur, there are no definitive answers yet (Almeida-Filho et al, 2018). As a possible equivalent for memory consolidation, neuronal activity during a task is replayed in a coherent and temporal order in a succeeding rest period (Hoffman & McNaughton, 2002). The reactivations may help to incorporate new types of information into preexisting memories (Gisquet-Verrier & Riccio, 2012). The reactivation of specific memory loops can be triggered in subjects, even when asleep (Rasch et al, 2007). This “targeted memory reactivation” (TMR) at large has produced increases in sleep-dependent memory processing, utilizing either olfactory or auditory stimuli as triggers (Schouten et al, 2017). Evidence has emerged that the rapid eye movement sleep stage (REM sleep) may be directly involved with the selectivity of sleep-dependent memory consolidation (Oudiette et al, 2013; Stickgold & Walker, 2013). REM sleep memory reactivations may reduce self-imposed constraints, thereby facilitating creative and analogical problem-solving (Lewis et al, 2018). This present study used auditory targeted memory reactivation (TMR) of problem-associated memories to facilitate the solution of a specific video game level (Problem-Solving Test, PST). Furthermore, this study used a second video game level with an analogical solution strategy (Analogical Problem-Solving Test, APST), which had been shown to increase the solving rate of logical problems (Monaghan et al, 2015). In the present study 32 subjects participated and were allocated to the REM sleep TMR group (REM Stim) and to the active wakefulness TMR group (Wake Stim). After the video game training session (including an attempt at the Problem-Solving Test), REM Stim subjects slept overnight in the sleep laboratory and auditory TMR was applied during REM sleep. After a 45-minute break, Wake Stim subjects received auditory TMR while working on a vigilance task and pursued their regular day schedule outside the laboratory, to return in the evening for further testing. During the testing session half of each group started with the Problem-Solving Test (PST) and the other half with the Analogical Problem-Solving Test (APST) and all attempted to complete both levels. This study found no beneficial effect for REM sleep TMR over active wakefulness TMR on solving rate or speed of the PST. The theory that REM sleep memory reactivations facilitate problem-solving was not confirmed (Lewis et al, 2018). A beneficial effect of sleep for problem-solving as described by other authors was not found (Beijamini et al, 2014; Sio et al, 2013). PST solving was facilitated by prior APST solving only for REM Stim subjects. APST solving rate was higher in the REM Stim group. These results support that sleep improves analogical problem-solving (Monaghan et al, 2015). Possible confounding effects were mental and mood state, sleepiness and subjective video game experience. Apart from the latter, these effects seem to be partly related to the circadian rhythm (Borb & Achermann, 1999). Future studies should try to replicate these results with control conditions of slow wave sleep TMR and no TMR sleep and wake groups. Additionally, larger sample sizes should be used, to further assess the overall importance of sleep and TMR for problem-solving. Enhancing sleep procedures to optimize cognitive capabilities remain an interesting prospect for further research.Anekdoten und Redewendungen weisen Schlaf einen positiven Effekt insbesondere auf das Lösen von schwierigen Problemen zu. Derzeit ist der Forschungsstand uneins. Manche Studien fanden Belege für verbessertes Lösen vor allem schwieriger Probleme durch Schlaf (Sio et al, 2013). Andere fanden keinen Effekt (Landmann et al, 2016). Durch Schlafen nach dem Lösen analoger Probleme verbessere sich das Problemlösen danach (Monaghan et al, 2015). Schlaf ist ein heterogener Prozess unterscheidbarer Schlafstadien (Rechtschaffen, 1968). Obwohl Belege für Erklärungsmodelle der positiven Effekte von Schlaf auf Lernen, Gedächtnis und Problemlösung gefunden wurden, fehlen bisher die abschließenden Beweise (Almeida-Filho et al, 2018). Als mögliches Korrelat der Gedächtniskonsolidierung wiederholen sich kongruente neuronale Aktivierungen während einer Tätigkeit auch in den folgenden Ruhephasen (Hoffman & McNaughton, 2002). Diese Reaktivierungen können die Integration neuer Informationen in frühere Erinnerungen ermöglichen (Gisquet-Verrier & Riccio, 2012). Selbst während des Schlafes lassen sich Reaktivierungen bestimmter Erinnerungen triggern (Rasch et al, 2007). Mit olfaktorischen oder auditorischen Stimuli kann diese „Gezielte Erinnerungsreaktivierung“ (TMR) Effekte von Schlaf auf diese Erinnerungen verstärken (Schouten et al, 2017). Ein Zusammenhang des Rapid Eye Movement Schlafes (REM Schlaf) mit der Selektivität der schlafabhängigen Gedächtniskonsolidierung wurde beschrieben (Oudiette et al, 2013; Stickgold & Walker, 2013). Gedächtnisreaktivierungen im REM Schlaf können selbstauferlegte Einschränkungen abschwächen und damit kreatives und analoges Problemlösen fördern (Lewis et al, 2018). Die vorliegende Studie verwendete eine auditorische „Gezielte Erinnerungsreaktivierung“ (TMR) von Problem-assoziierten Erinnerungen um die Lösung eines speziellen Videospiellevels (Problem-Solving Test, PST) zu erleichtern. Ein weiteres Level mit einer analogen Lösungsstrategie (Analogical Problem-Solving Test, APST) wurde eingesetzt, welches Konzept in anderen Studien die Lösungsrate von Problemen erhöhte (Monaghan et al, 2015). An dieser Studie nahmen 32 Probanden teil und wurden der REM Schlaf TMR Gruppe (REM Stim) und der Gruppe mit TMR während aktiven Wachseins (Wake Stim) zugeteilt. Nach einer Trainingseinheit (inklusive eines Versuches am Problem-Solving Test) schlief die REM Stim Gruppe über Nacht im Schlaflabor und erhielt TMR während des REM Schlafes. Wake Stim Probanden hingegen erhielten nach einer 45-minütigen Pause die TMR während eines Vigilanztestes und gingen ihren täglichen Aktivitäten außerhalb des Labors nach, um abends für weitere Tests zurückzukehren. In der Testeinheit startete die Hälfte jeder Gruppe mit dem Problem-Solving Test (PST) und die andere Hälfte mit dem Analogical Problem-Solving Test (APST) und alle versuchten beide Level zu lösen. Diese Studie fand keine verbesserte Lösungsrate oder -geschwindigkeit des PST durch REM Schlaf TMR im Vergleich zu der TMR während des aktiven Wachseins. Die Theorie, dass Gedächtnisreaktivierungen im REM Schlaf Problemlösen erleichtern, wurde nicht bestätigt. (Lewis et al, 2018). Beschriebene Verbesserungen des Problemlösens durch Schlaf konnten nicht bestätigt werden (Beijamini et al, 2014; Sio et al, 2013). Nur in der REM Stim Gruppe war PST-Lösungsrate höher nach APST-Lösung. Die Lösungsrate des APST selbst war höher in der REM Stim Gruppe. Dies könnte ein Beleg für ein verbessertes Lösen analoger Probleme nach dem Schlafen sein (Monaghan et al, 2015). Mögliche konfundierende Faktoren waren geistige und emotionale Verfassung, Schläfrigkeit und subjektives Erleben des Videospiels. Außer letzterem lassen sich diese teilweise durch die zirkadiane Rhythmik erklären (Borb & Achermann, 1999). Zukünftige Studien sollten versuchen diese Ergebnisse mit größeren Stichproben zu replizieren. Kontrollgruppen mit „Slow Wave“ Schlaf TMR, sowie Schlaf- und Wachgruppen ohne TMR sollten zusätzlich untersucht werden, um die Bedeutung von Schlaf und TMR auf Problemlösen im Gesamten einzuschätzen. Die Möglichkeiten einer Optimierung kognitiver Fähigkeiten durch additive Prozeduren während des Schlafes bleiben eine interessante Idee

How to improve learning from video, using an eye tracker

The initial trigger of this research about learning from video was the availability of log files from users of video material. Video modality is seen as attractive as it is associated with the relaxed mood of watching TV. The experiments in this research have the goal to gain more insight in viewing patterns of students when viewing video. Students received an awareness instruction about the use of possible alternative viewing behaviors to see whether this would enhance their learning effects. We found that: - the learning effects of students with a narrow viewing repertoire were less than the learning effects of students with a broad viewing repertoire or strategic viewers. - students with some basic knowledge of the topics covered in the videos benefited most from the use of possible alternative viewing behaviors and students with low prior knowledge benefited the least. - the knowledge gain of students with low prior knowledge disappeared after a few weeks; knowledge construction seems worse when doing two things at the same time. - media players could offer more options to help students with their search for the content they want to view again. - there was no correlation between pervasive personality traits and viewing behavior of students. The right use of video in higher education will lead to students and teachers that are more aware of their learning and teaching behavior, to better videos, to enhanced media players, and, finally, to higher learning effects that let users improve their learning from video

Exploring And Training Spatial Reasoning Via Eye Movements: Implications On Performance

This dissertation sought to determine if eye movements could serve as an indicator of success in spatial reasoning, and if eye movements associated with successful completion could be applied to strategically improve spatial reasoning. Using the line images of Shepard and Metzler, an electronic test of mental rotations ability (EMRT) was designed. Two versions of the test were created, allowing for both a timed (6 seconds per question) and untimed testing environment. Four experiments were designed and completed to relate mental rotation ability (MRA) scores from the EMRT, to patterns in chrononumeric and visual salience data. In each experiment, participants completed the EMRT under a different protocol. These protocols included an untimed EMRT, a timed EMRT, a within-participant crossover study where participants completed both the timed, and untimed EMRT in series, and a training crossover study where low MRA participants completed the timed EMRT in both a guided and unguided environment. In the untimed experiment, individuals of high and low MRA were asked to complete the EMRT while their eye movements were observed. As no time limit was imposed, the results allowed for observations based on MRA alone, and served to demonstrate and how individuals of different skill level differ in terms of eye movement. In the following experiment, the addition of a time limit to the EMRT revealed how individuals of high and low MRA perform when under a time restriction. The results of the Timed experiment confirmed differences between the high and low MRA group in terms of eye movements, and attention to salient regions of test images. In the third experiment, the addition of a time limit was further explored through a crossover design. By adding a time limit to an MRT, the ability of individuals to solve spatial problems is impaired, and is manifest in eye movements. Data derived from the Crossover Experiment suggested that salience-based metrics might serve to distinguish between groups of MRA, and that time restrictions may influence both participant accuracy, and identification of visually salient elements. The results from the first three experiments were then applied in the Guidance Experiment to confirm the role that visual salience plays in the context of spatial problem solving. By mapping the apprehension patterns of successful high MRA individuals onto the EMRT, low MRA individuals could be guided to salient areas on the timed EMRT. The results revealed that the application of visual guidance is an effective mechanism for MRA training. This research attends to a previously unaddressed niche in eye-movement and spatial ability training literature. As a result, it may serve as a foundation to cultivate methods of honing and improving spatial skills in the general population

Functional Organization of the Human Brain: How We See, Feel, and Decide.

The human brain is responsible for constructing how we perceive, think, and act in the world around us. The organization of these functions is intricately distributed throughout the brain. Here, I discuss how functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was employed to understand three broad questions: how do we see, feel, and decide? First, high-resolution fMRI was used to measure the polar angle representation of saccadic eye movements in the superior colliculus. We found that eye movements along the superior-inferior visual field are mapped across the medial-lateral anatomy of a subcortical midbrain structure, the superior colliculus (SC). This result is consistent with the topography in monkey SC. Second, we measured the empathic responses of the brain as people watched a hand get painfully stabbed with a needle. We found that if the hand was labeled as belonging to the same religion as the observer, the empathic neural response was heightened, creating a strong ingroup bias that could not be readily manipulated. Third, we measured brain activity in individuals as they made free decisions (i.e., choosing randomly which of two buttons to press) and found the activity within fronto-thalamic networks to be significantly decreased compared to being instructed (forced) to press a particular button. I also summarize findings from several other projects ranging from addiction therapies to decoding visual imagination to how corporations are represented as people. Together, these approaches illustrate how functional neuroimaging can be used to understand the organization of the human brain

The Aha! Experience of Spatial Reorientation

The experience of spatial re-orientation is investigated as an instance of the wellknown phenomenon of the Aha! moment. The research question is: What are the visuospatial conditions that are most likely to trigger the spatial Aha! experience? The literature suggests that spatial re-orientation relies mainly on the geometry of the environment and a visibility graph analysis is used to quantify the visuospatial information. Theories from environmental psychology point towards two hypotheses. The Aha! experience may be triggered by a change in the amount of visual information, described by the isovist properties of area and revelation, or by a change in the complexity of the visual information associated with the isovist properties of clustering coefficient and visual control. Data from participants’ exploratory behaviour and EEG recordings are collected during wayfinding in virtual reality urban environments. Two types of events are of interest here: (a) sudden changes of the visuospatial information preceding subjects' response to investigate changes in EEG power; and (b) participants brain dynamics (Aha! effect) just before the response to examine differences in isovist values at this location. Research on insights, time-frequency analysis of the P3 component and findings from navigation and orientation studies suggest that the spatial Aha! experience may be reflected by: a parietal alpha power decrease associated with the switch of the representation and a frontocentral theta increase indexing spatial processing during decision-making. Single-trial time-frequency analysis is used to classify trials into two conditions based on the alpha/theta power differences between a 3s time-period before participants’ response and a time-period of equal duration before that. Behavioural results show that participants are more likely to respond at locations with low values of clustering coefficient and high values of visual control. The EEG analysis suggests that the alpha decrease/theta increase condition occurs at locations with significantly lower values of clustering coefficient and higher values of visual control. Small and large decreases in clustering coefficient, just before the response, are associated with significant differences in delta/theta power. The values of area and revelation do not show significant differences. Both behavioural and EEG results suggest that the Aha! experience of re-orientation is more likely to be triggered by a change in the complexity of the visual-spatial environment rather than a change in the amount, as measured by the relevant isovist properties

Mediation and Joke Design: Resolving the Incongruities

The purposes of this Article are: (1) to highlight some of these new discoveries; (2) to discuss their implications for mediators generally, particularly toward achieving super-optimum resolutions of conflict; (3) to explore the relationship of these discoveries to the brain\u27s bilateral functions, creativity, and the process of humor and joke design; (4) to suggest techniques, based on joke design, for altering conflict frames of disputants; and (5) to suggest directions for further experimentation and research. Although the interrelationships among the separate topics presented here may not be immediately discernible, the seeming incongruities will be resolved in Part VII

Spatial Thinking in the Engineering Curriculum: an Investigation of the Relationship Between Problem Solving and Spatial Skills Among Engineering Students.

Long considered a primary factor of intelligence, spatial ability has been shown to correlate strongly with success in engineering education, yet is rarely included as a learning outcome in engineering programmes. A clearer understanding of how and why spatial ability impacts on performance in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects would allow educators to determine if spatial skills development merits greater priority in STEM curricula. The aim of this study is to help inform that debate by shedding new light on the role of spatial thinking in STEM learning and allow teaching practice and curriculum design to be informed by evidence based research. A cross cutting theme in STEM education – problem solving – is examined with respect to its relationship with spatial ability. Several research questions were addressed that related to the role and relevance of spatial ability to first year engineering education and, more specifically, the manner in which spatial ability is manifest in the representation and solution of word story problems in mathematics. Working with samples of engineering students in Ireland and the United States, data were collected in the form of responses to spatial ability tests and problem solving exercises in the areas of mathematics and electric circuits. Following a pilot study to select and refine a set of mathematical story problems a mixed methods design was followed in which data were first analysed using quantitative methods to highlight phenomena that were then explored using an interpretive approach. With regard to engineering education in general, it was found that spatial ability cannot be assumed to improve as students progress through an engineering programme and that spatial ability is highly relevant to assessments that require reasoning about concepts, novel scenarios and problems but can remain hidden in overall course grades possibly due to an emphasis on assessing rote learning. With regard to problem solving, spatial ability was found to have a significant relationship with the problem representation step but not with the solution step. Those with high levels of spatial ability were more able to apply linguistic and schematic knowledge to the problem representation phase which led to higher success rates in translating word statements to mathematical form