Urban Hydrogeology Studies

Urbanization worldwide is a pervasive phenomenon of our time, and sustainable urban development is one of the greatest challenges faced by the contemporary world. The subsurface plays a range of roles in such developments through the complex processes of urbanization, including building development, constructing roads, and providing water supplies, drainage, sanitation, and even solid waste disposal.Urban groundwater problems are usually predictable; however, they are not predicted early enough. During recent decades, progressive advances in the scientific understanding of urban hydrogeological processes and the groundwater regimes of a substantial number of cities have been documented. This extensive array of subsurface challenges that cities have to contend with lies at the core of the sustainability of the urban water cycle. This is threatened by the increasing scale and downward extent of urban subsurface construction, including utilities (cables, sewage, and drainage), transportation (tunnels, passages), and storage (cellars, parking lots, and thermal energy). The cumulative impact of this subsurface congestion on the surrounding geology, and especially on the groundwater system, has to be constantly studied and addressed.In this volume, key connections amongst urban hydrogeology activities are identified as being consistent with scientific results and good practices in their relationship to subsurface data and knowledge on subsurface systems. The volume supports a useful dialogue between the providers and consumers of urban groundwater data and knowledge, offering new perspectives on the existing research themes

An overview of monitoring methods for assessing the performance of nature-based solutions against natural hazards

To bring to fruition the capability of nature-based solutions (NBS) in mitigating hydro-meteorological risks (HMRs) and facilitate their widespread uptake require a consolidated knowledge-base related to their monitoring methods, efficiency, functioning and the ecosystem services they provide. We attempt to fill this knowledge gap by reviewing and compiling the existing scientific literature on methods, including ground-based measurements (e.g. gauging stations, wireless sensor network) and remote sensing observations (e.g. from topographic LiDAR, multispectral and radar sensors) that have been used and/or can be relevant to monitor the performance of NBS against five HMRs: floods, droughts, heatwaves, landslides, and storm surges and coastal erosion. These can allow the mapping of the risks and impacts of the specific hydro-meteorological events. We found that the selection and application of monitoring methods mostly rely on the particular NBS being monitored, resource availability (e.g. time, budget, space) and type of HMRs. No standalone method currently exists that can allow monitoring the performance of NBS in its broadest view. However, equipments, tools and technologies developed for other purposes, such as for ground-based measurements and atmospheric observations, can be applied to accurately monitor the performance of NBS to mitigate HMRs. We also focused on the capabilities of passive and active remote sensing, pointing out their associated opportunities and difficulties for NBS monitoring application. We conclude that the advancement in airborne and satellite-based remote sensing technology has signified a leap in the systematic monitoring of NBS performance, as well as provided a robust way for the spatial and temporal comparison of NBS intervention versus its absence. This improved performance measurement can support the evaluation of existing uncertainty and scepticism in selecting NBS over the artificially built concrete structures or grey approaches by addressing the questions of performance precariousness. Remote sensing technical developments, however, take time to shift toward a state of operational readiness for monitoring the progress of NBS in place (e.g. green NBS growth rate, their changes and effectiveness through time). More research is required to develop a holistic approach, which could routinely and continually monitor the performance of NBS over a large scale of intervention. This performance evaluation could increase the ecological and socio-economic benefits of NBS, and also create high levels of their acceptance and confidence by overcoming potential scepticism of NBS implementations

Rising groundwater levels in the Neapolitan area and its impacts on civil engineering structures, agricultural soils and archaeological sites

The rise of groundwater levels (GWLr) is a worldwide phenomenon with several consequences for urban and rural environment, cultural heritage and human health. In this thesis the phenomenon and its effects are analysed in two sectors of the Metropolitan City of Naples (southern Italy). These areas are the central sector of the eastern plain of Naples and the Cumae archaeological site in the western coastal sector of Phlegraean Fields. The triggering mechanism of GWLr is attributed to anthropogenic and natural causes, as the groundwater rebound (GR) process and the relative sea level rise due to volcano-tectonic subsidence of coastal areas. In the eastern plain of Naples, the interruption of pumping for public and private purposes occurred in 1990, leading to a progressive increase of piezometric levels with values up to 16.54 m. Since the end of 2000s, episodes of groundwater flooding (GF) have been registered on underground structures and agricultural soils. The historical piezometric levels and a comprehensive conceptual model of the aquifer have been reconstructed, as well as a first inventory of GF episodes and the hydrogeological controlling factors of GF occurrence have been detected. The economic consequences of GF have been analysed for an experimental building of study area, in which a sharp increment of expenditures has been registered. These costs include technical and legal support, construction and maintenance of GF mitigation measures and electricity consumption. Others GWLr-induced phenomena have been recognised, as ground vertical deformation and variations of the groundwater contamination. A relationship between GWLr and ground uplift emerges from the coupled analysis of piezometric and interferometric data, referred to the 1989-2013 period. The ground deformation occurs in response to the recovery of pore-pressure in the aquifer system, reaching an uplift magnitude up to 40-50 mm. In the 1989-2017 period, the piezometric levels and the concentrations of some natural contaminants in groundwater (Fe, Mn, fluorides) show opposite trends, conversely the same rising trend has been observed with nitrates. These different responses to piezometric rise are related to the lack of mobilization of deep fluids due to the interruption of pumping and to the reduction of the surficial contaminants' time travel caused by a shorter thickness of the vadose zone. In the western sector of Phlegraean Fields, the naturally triggered GWLr has caused GF in the Cumae archaeological site for the last decade, threatening safeguard and conservation of the archaeological heritage. From an integrated hydrogeological, hydrochemical and isotopic survey, a considerable contamination of groundwater resulted, due to the presence of rising highly mineralized fluids, mobilized during pumping periods, and others anthropogenic sources of contamination. Lastly, a novel methodology for groundwater flooding susceptibility (GFS) assessment has been developed by using machine learning techniques and tested in the eastern plain of Naples. Points of GF occurrence have been connected to environmental predisposing factors through Spatial Distribution Models' algorithms to estimate the most prone areas' distribution. Ensemble Models have been carried out to reduce the uncertainty associated with each algorithm and increase its reliability. Mapping of GFS has been realized by dividing occurrence probability values into five classes of susceptibility. Results show an optimal correspondence between GF points' location and the highest classes (93% of GF points falls into high and very high classes). The results of this research provide new knowledge on the GWLr phenomenon that has impacted a large territory of the Metropolitan City of Naples. The methodological approach used can be exported in others hydrogeological contexts to characterize GWLr and its impacts. In addition, the implemented GFS methodology represents a new tool to assist local government authorities, planners and water decision-makers in addressing the problems deriving from GF, and a first step for the evaluation of GF risk as required by Italian and European legislation

Development and characterization of pore-blocking small molecules against cholesterol-dependent cytolysins as anti-virulence strategy

Cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDC) are acknowledged virulence factors of a wide range of pathogenic gram-positive bacteria like Streptococci, Clostridia, and Listeria etc. CDC selectively target membranes that contain cholesterol and induce pathogenesis in the host organisms by versatile mechanisms. Bacteria release CDC during an infection, which infuriate the infection and the treatment of infection becomes challenging with the contemporary regime of anti-infectives. The noxious responses of CDC include direct toxicity via pore formation, manipulation of cellular signaling to promote bacterial survival and evasion of the immune system. Worldwide, millions of deaths are associated with CDC like PLY, PFO, LLO etc. Therefore, CDC have been considered as a potential target for drugs. In the research of the last few decades, multiple natural and synthetic small molecules have been proposed as anti-toxins, however, due to lack of specificity, none of them were contemplated for clinical testing. Thus, to date there is no specific treatment available to counter CDC manifestations and the goal of this project is to develop and validate specific small molecules against CDC. PLY was selected as a prototype CDC for testing of small molecules. In our earlier work, a model of PLY-pore was developed to virtually screen half a million molecules from online databases that could block the oligomerization and ultimately pore formation of PLY. Pore-Blocker-1 (PB-1), was the only molecule that actively inhibited PLY in a hemolysis assay and, thereon, its optimization led to the discovery of PB-2 with ten times improved activity. In this dissertation, PB-1 and 2 were validated in the BLI assay. Cryo-TEM analysis showcased that PB-2 prevented the PLY penetration in membranes of cholesterol-liposomes. By analyzing several closely related derivatives of PB-2 the pharmacophore of inhibitors was identified, which enabled the effective alteration of scaffolds to produce PB-3, a more chemically stable and potent inhibitor of PLY. PB-3 exhibited an IC50 of 3 µM in the hemolysis assay and a KD value of 256 nM against PLY in the BLI assay. Analogous potency of PB-3 was observed in the LDH assay and cellular microscopy. PB-3 was generated and quantified through the protein-catalyzed ligation of precursor fragments. The actual mechanism of inhibitors was unveiled by evaluating the activity of inhibitors against multiple PLY-mutants and in contrast to the virtually proposed mechanism of binding, a cysteine mutant of PLY suggested that PB-3 might be binding to a cysteine in the membrane-binding domain of PLY. Then, BLI and MS investigations of cysteine mutant PLY and wild type confirmed the cysteine-mediated reversible covalent interaction between PB-3 and PLY. Afterwards, PB-3 was observed barely active against other cysteine-proteases (PTP-1B and SARS-CoV2), confirming the increased affinity of PB-3 toward PLY. PB-3 blocked PLY in a bacterial infection-model assay, this experiment further affirms selectively of PB-3 to PLY because the cell culture medium contained 13000-fold more free-cysteine than PLY. Finally, PB-3 was examined against two further CDC, PFO and ILY. PFO is analogous to PLY and possesses a cysteine residue in the undecapeptide and when PB-3 was tested, it was nearly 10 times more potent against PFO than PLY. Conversely, ILY is devoid of cysteine and PB-3 was expectedly inactive against ILY. In the light of these results, we presumably consider PB-3 as an inhibitor of cysteine-containing CDC.Cholesterin-abhängige Cytolysine (CDC) sind anerkannte Virulenzfaktoren einer breiten Palette pathogener grampositiver Bakterien wie Streptokokken, Clostridien und Listerien usw. CDC zielen selektiv auf Membranen ab, die Cholesterin enthalten, und induzieren die Pathogenese in den Wirtsorganismen durch vielseitige Mechanismen. Bakterien setzen während einer Infektion CDCs frei, die die Invasivität der Infektion erhöhen, und die Behandlung von Infektionen wird mit der derzeitigen Therapie mit Antiinfektiva zu einer Herausforderung. Zu den schädlichen Reaktionen von CDC gehören die direkte Toxizität über die Porenbildung, die Manipulation der zellulären Signalübertragung zur Förderung des bakteriellen Überlebens und die Umgehung des Immunsystems. Millionen von Todesfällen weltweit sind mit CDC wie PLY, PFO, LLO usw. verbunden. Daher wurden CDC als potenzielles Arzneimittelziel angesehen. Während der Forschung der letzten Jahrzehnte wurden mehrere natürliche und synthetische kleine Moleküle als Antitoxine vorgeschlagen, aufgrund mangelnder Spezifität wurde jedoch keines von ihnen für klinische Tests in Betracht gezogen. In unserer früheren Forschung wurde ein Modell von PLY-Poren entwickelt, um virtuell eine halbe Million Moleküle aus Online-Datenbanken zu Screening, die die Oligomerisierung und letztendlich die Porenbildung von PLY blockieren könnten. Pore Blocker-1 (PB-1) war das einzige Molekül, das PLY in einem Hämolyse-Assay aktiv hemmte, und seine Optimierung führte anschließend zur Entdeckung von PB-2 mit zehnfach verbesserter Aktivität. In dieser Dissertation wurden PB-1 und 2 mit dem BLI-Test validiert. Die Cryo-TEM-Analyse zeigte, dass PB-2 das Eindringen von PLY in die Membranen von Cholesterin-Liposomen verhinderte. Das Pharmakophor der Inhibitoren wurde durch die Analyse mehrerer eng verwandter Derivate von PB-2 identifiziert, was eine effektive Veränderung der Gerüste ermöglichte, um PB-3, einen chemisch stabileren und stärkeren Inhibitor von PLY, zu entwickeln. PB-3 hatte eine IC50 von 3 µM im Hämolyse-Assay und einen KD-Wert von 256 nM für PLY im BLI-Assay. Eine ähnliche Wirksamkeit von PB-3 wurde im LDH-Assay und in der Zellmikroskopie nachgewiesen. PB-3 wurde durch die protein-katalysierte Ligation von Precursor-Fragmenten erzeugt und quantifiziert. PB-3 wurde durch die Proteintemplat-unterstützte Ligation von Precursor-Fragmenten erzeugt und quantifiziert. Der wahre Mechanismus der Inhibitoren wurde durch die Auswertung der Aktivität der Inhibitoren gegen mehrere PLY-Mutanten entdeckt. Im Kontrast zu dem virtuell vorgeschlagenen Bindungsmechanismus deutete eine Cystein-Mutante von PLY darauf hin, dass PB-3 an ein Cystein in der Membran-Bindungsdomäne von PLY binden könnte. Anschließend bestätigten BLI und MS Untersuchungen der Cystein-Mutante PLY und des Wildtyps die Cystein-vermittelte reversible kovalente Interaktion zwischen PB-3 und PLY. Im Anschluss daran wurde PB-3 als kaum aktiv gegen andere Cystein-Proteasen (PTP-1B und SARS-CoV2) identifiziert, was die erhöhte Affinität von PB-3 gegenüber PLY bestätigt. PB-3 blockierte PLY in einem bakteriellen Infektionsmodell-Assay. Dieses Experiment bestätigt außerdem die Selektivität von PB-3 für PLY, da das Zellkulturmedium 13000-mal mehr freies Cystein als PLY enthielt. Zum Schluss wurde PB-3 gegen zwei weitere CDC, PFO und ILY, getestet. PFO ist analog zu PLY und enthält Cystein, und bei der Prüfung von PB-3 wurde festgestellt, dass es fast zehnmal stärker gegen PFO wirkt als PLY. Umgekehrt ist ILY frei von Cystein und PB-3 war erwartungsgemäß inaktiv gegenüber ILY. In Anbetracht dieser Ergebnisse halten wir PB-3 vermutlich für einen Hemmstoff gegen Cystein-haltiges CDC

Selected Papers from the 2018 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for the Sea

This Special Issue is devoted to recent developments in instrumentation and measurement techniques applied to the marine field. ¶The sea is the medium that has allowed people to travel from one continent to another using vessels, even today despite the use of aircraft. It has also been acting as a great reservoir and source of food for all living beings. However, for many generations, it served as a landfill for depositing conventional and nuclear wastes, especially in its deep seabeds, and we are assisting in a race to exploit minerals and resources, different from foods, encompassed in it. Its health is a great challenge for the survival of all humanity since it is one of the most important environmental components targeted by global warming. ¶ As everyone may know, measuring is a step that generates substantial knowledge about a phenomenon or an asset, which is the basis for proposing correct solutions and making proper decisions. However, measurements in the sea environment pose unique difficulties and opportunities, which is made clear from the research results presented in this Special Issue

Advances in Membrane Technologies

Membrane technologies are currently the most effective and sustainable methods utilized in diversified water filtration, wastewater treatment, as well as industrial and sustainable energy applications. This book covers essential subsections of membrane separation and bioseparation processes from the perspectives of technical innovation, novelty, and sustainability. The book offers a comprehensive overview of the latest improvements and concerns with respect to membrane fouling remediation techniques, issues of bioincompatibility for biomedical applications, and various subareas of membrane separation processes, which will be an efficient resource for engineers