Bank capital and equity investment regulations

An intermediation model that examines the efficiency and welfare implications of banks' required capital-asset ratio and of the regulations that limit - and in some countries forbid - banks' investments in equity to a certain proportion of each firm's capital. ; A look at how episodes of competing currencies can provide insight on 1) the qualities of a commodity that lead to its becoming a dominant currency, 2) the route by which a nationally mandated paper currency becomes acceptable as a medium of exchange, and 3) the way in which competition between currencies sustains the exchange value of a fiat currency by restricting the actions available to the monetary authority. ; A look at how episodes of competing currencies can provide insight on 1) the qualities of a commodity that lead to its becoming a dominant currency, 2) the route by which a nationally mandated paper currency becomes acceptable as a medium of exchange, and 3) the way in which competition between currencies sustains the exchange value of a fiat currency by restricting the actions available to the monetary authority.Bank capital ; Bank investments

Handicapping currency design: counterfeit deterrence and visual accessibility in the United States and abroad

Despite the increasing use of electronic payments, currency retains an important role in the payments system of every country. Two aspects of currency usage drive currency design worldwide: deterring counterfeiting and making paper currency accessible to the visually impaired. Further, among the world's currencies, only U.S. banknotes are widely owned and used in transactions outside their country of issue (although the euro also has some external circulation). In this article, we compare and contrast major currencies and their design features. We conclude that the designs of the two most widely used currencies in the world-the U.S. dollar and the euro-have successfully deterred counterfeiting; data on other currencies are not public. We also conclude that, among the world's major currencies, U.S. banknotes have the fewest features to assist the visually impaired.Paper money design ; Coinage ; Counterfeits and counterfeiting

Vehicle Currency

While in principle, international payments could be carried out using any currency or set of currencies, in practice, the US dollar is predominant in international trade and financial flows. The dollar acts as a `vehicle currency' in the sense that agents in non-dollar economies will generally engage in currency trade indirectly using the US dollar rather than using direct bilateral trade among their own currencies. Indirect trade is desirable when there are transactions costs of exchange. This paper constructs a dynamic general equilibrium model of a vehicle currency. We explore the nature of the efficiency gains arising from a vehicle currency, and show how this depends on the total number of currencies in existence, the size of the vehicle currency economy, and the monetary policy followed by the vehicle currency's government. We find that there can be very large welfare gains to a vehicle currency in a system of many independent currencies. But these gains are asymmetrically weighted towards the residents of the vehicle currency country. The survival of a vehicle currency places natural limits on the monetary policy of the vehicle country.Vehicle currency; Transactions cost; Welfare gains

Vehicle currency

While in principle, international payments could be carried out using any currency or set of currencies, in practice, the U.S. dollar is predominant in international trade and financial flows. The dollar acts as a "vehicle currency" in the sense that agents in nondollar economies will generally engage in currency trade indirectly using the U.S. dollar rather than using direct bilateral trade among their own currencies. Indirect trade is desirable when there are transactions costs of exchange.> ; This paper constructs a dynamic general equilibrium model of a vehicle currency. We explore the nature of the efficiency gains arising from a vehicle currency, and show how this depends on the total number of currencies in existence, the size of the vehicle currency economy, and the monetary policy followed by the vehicle currency's government. We find that there can be very large welfare gains to a vehicle currency in a system of many independent currencies. But these gains are asymmetry weighted towards the residents of the vehicle currency country. The survival of a vehicle currency places natural limits on the monetary policy of the vehicle country.International trade ; Dollar, American ; Equilibrium (Economics) - Mathematical models ; Monetary policy

The risk analysis of Bitcoin and major currencies: value at risk approach

Purpose – This study aims to compare investors of major conventional currencies and Bitcoin (BTC) investors by using the value at risk (VaR) method common risk measure. Design/methodology/approach – The paper used a risk analysis named as VaR. The analysis has various computations that Historical Simulation and Monte Carlo Simulation methods were used for this paper. Findings – Findings of the analysis are assessed in two different aspects of singular currency risk and portfolios built. First, BTC is found to be significantly risky with respect to the major currencies; and it is six times riskier than the singular most risky currency. Second, in terms of inclusion of BTC into a portfolio, which equally weights all currencies, it elevates overall portfolio risk by 98 per cent. Practical implications – In spite of the remarkable risk level, it could be considered that investors are desirous of making an investment on BTC could mitigate their overall exposed risk relatively by building a portfolio. Originality/value – The paper questions the risk level of Bitcoin, which is a digital currency. BTC, a matter of debate in the contemporary period, is seen as a digital currency free from control or supervision of a regulatory board. With the comparison of major currencies and BTC shows that how could be risky of a financial instrument without regulations. However, there is some advice for investors who would like to invest digital currencies despite the risk level in this study

Hedge your costs: exchange rate risk and endogenous currency invoicing

The choice of invoicing currency for trade is crucial for the international transmission of macroeconomic policy. This paper develops a three-country model that endogenizes the choice of invoicing currency and that allows for a share of firms' costs to be denominated in foreign currency, consistent with the empirical evidence on the high degree of pass-through to import prices. Invoicing decisions are driven by firms' desire to hedge costs but also by exchange rate volatility and currency comovements. The model is tested empirically with a data set that spans ten currencies and 24 reporting countries, confirming the importance of currency comovements for the decision to invoice in vehicle currency. The findings also imply that if the U.S. share of world output continues to fall, other currencies will increasingly replace the U.S. dollar as an international vehicle currency

Indian Fake Currency Detection using Image Processing: A Review

Paper currency identification is one of the image processing techniques i.e. clothed to recognize currency of different countries. The paper currencies of different countries are collectively rises ever more. However, the main intention of most of the standard currency recognition systems and machines is on recognizing fake currencies. The features are extracted by using image processing toolbox in MATLAB and preprocessed by reducing the data size in captured image. The expose pluck out is discharged by considering HSV (Hue Saturation Value). The chief is neural network classifier and the next step is recognition. MATLAB is used to evolve this program. The new source of paper currency recognition is pattern recognition. But for currency recognition, converter system is an image processing method which is used to identify currency and transfer it into the other currencies as the users need. The need of currency recognition and converters is accurately to recognize the currencies and transfer the currency immediately into the other currency. This application uses the computing energy in differentiation among different kinds of currencies are differentiated with their suitable class using power computing. Fake note at present plays a key topic for the researchers. The recognition system is composed of two parts. First is the captured image and the second is recognition. Forged currencies recognition is the main aim of the standard paper currency identification system. The most mandatory system is currency identification system and it should be very accurate. The performance of different methods are surveyed to refine the exactness of currency recognition system

A Review on Fake Currency Detection using Image Processing

Paper currency identification is one of the image processing techniques i.e. clothed to recognize currency of different countries. The paper currencies of different countries are collectively rises ever more. However, the main intention of most of the standard currency recognition systems and machines is on recognizing fake currencies. The features are extracted by using image processing toolbox in MATLAB and preprocessed by reducing the data size in captured image. The expose pluck out is discharged by considering HSV (Hue Saturation Value). The chief is neural network classifier and the next step is recognition. MATLAB is used to evolve this program. The new source of paper currency recognition is pattern recognition. But for currency recognition, converter system is an image processing method which is used to identify currency and transfer it into the other currencies as the users need. The need of currency recognition and converters is accurately to recognize the currencies and transfer the currency immediately into the other currency. This application uses the computing energy in differentiation among different kinds of currencies are differentiated with their suitable class using power computing. Fake note at present plays a key topic for the researchers. The recognition system is composed of two parts. First is the captured image and the second is recognition. Forged currencies recognition is the main aim of the standard paper currency identification system. The most mandatory system is currency identification system and it should be very accurate. The performance of different methods are surveyed to refine the exactness of currency recognition system

ON THE FUTURE OF THE GLOBAL FOREIGN EXCHANGE RESERVE’ SYSTEM

US dollar is currently the most important currency in which foreign exchange reserves of different countries are set up, it being found both at the central banks and international financial institutions. Only very liquid currencies, stable and acceptable as a means of payment in a large economic area have the potential to become major currencies in which are maintained foreign exchange reserves. Ten years after the euro was launched, the US dollar’ share in foreign exchange reserves decreased by 7%, that don’t point to a significant diversification away from the US dollar in central bank assets over the past decade. But now, the US dollar’s position is no longer so secure. This paper explores different views on reserve currencies and tries to answer the question what kind of reserve currency do we need in order to ensure the stability of the global financial system.reserve currency, US dollar, euro, currency basket

Hedge Your Costs: Exchange Rate Risk and Endogenous Currency Invoicing

The choice of invoicing currency for trade is crucial for the international transmission of macroeconomic policy. This paper develops a three-country model that endogenizes the choice of invoicing currency and that allows for a share of firms' costs to be denominated in foreign currency, consistent with the empirical evidence on the high degree of pass-through to import prices. Invoicing decisions are driven by firms' desire to hedge costs but also by exchange rate volatility and currency comovements. The model is tested empirically with a data set that spans ten currencies and 24 reporting countries, confirming the importance of currency comovements for the decision to invoice in vehicle currency. The findings also imply that if the U.S. share of world output continues to fall, other currencies will increasingly replace the U.S. dollar as an international vehicle currency.Invoicing Currency ; Exchange Rate Risk ; Hedging