Number Processing in Infants and Children Born Very Preterm

Individuals born very preterm (<32 weeks; VP) have notably poorer attainment in mathematics than their term-born peers. Only a handful of studies have investigated basic numerical skills in VP children and the underlying mechanisms associated with problems with mathematics in this population are still not fully comprehended. Basic processes underlying numerical cognition can go awry very early in development and there is a lack of knowledge of early trajectories of acquisition of numerical skills in infants born prematurely. This thesis reports on a series of studies investigating number processing in very preterm infants and children. These make use of a combination of tools, such as neurodevelopmental assessments, eye-tracking, event-related-potentials, neuropsychological evaluations and experimental tasks. Specifically, cross-sectional studies investigated numerical sensitivity in VP infants aged six and twelve months. Behavioural and electrophysiological measures assessing a range of domain-general and domain-specific skills associated with mathematics performance were also investigated in VP school-aged children. The results showed that, during the first year of post-natal life, VP infants do not exhibit differential developmental trajectories in the basic ability to discriminate numerosities compared to infants born at full term, although they required a longer time to discriminate the new number of elements. Later in development, school-aged VP children demonstrated difficulties in processing basic numerical information. Electrophysiological data demonstrated that this might be associated with deficits in sensory and attention resources and not necessarily in how VP children encode number-related information. Difficulties in processing numerical information, however, have only a marginal impact on their performance in mathematics. We tentatively conclude that difficulties in mathematics in individuals born very prematurely are largely associated with domain-general skills

Executive function in Williams and Down syndromes

Williams (WS) and Down (DS) syndromes are characterised by roughly opposing ability profiles. Relative verbal strengths and visuospatial difficulties have been reported in those with WS, while expressive language difficulties have been observed in individuals with DS. Few investigations into the executive function (EF) skills of these groups have examined the effect of verbal/visuospatial task type on performance. Analogous verbal and visuospatial measures were administered to these populations within four EF domains: executive-loaded working memory (ELWM), inhibition, fluency and set-shifting. Performance in both groups was compared to that of typically developing (TD) children using regression techniques controlling for potentially influential cognitive/developmental factors. Individuals with WS showed the expected relative visuospatial difficulties, as indicated by poorer performance than TD individuals, on tests of ELWM and fluency. Individuals with DS displayed the expected relative verbal difficulty in the domain of set-shifting. In addition, each population showed pervasive deficits across modality in one domain; ELWM for individuals with DS, and inhibition for individuals with WS. Individuals with WS and DS showed EF difficulties in comparison to a TD group, but, their executive performance was affected by EF task type (verbal/visuospatial) and EF domain in different ways. While the findings indicated that EF in these populations is characterised by a range of specific strengths and weaknesses, it was also suggested that the relative verbal/visuospatial strengths associated with each population do not consistently manifest across EF domains. Lastly, syndrome specificity was indicated by the differences in groups’ performance patterns

Preschool Mathematics Performance and Executive Function: Rural-Urban Comparisons across Time

This longitudinal study examined the relationship between executive function (EF) and mathematics with rural and urban preschool children. A panel of direct and indirect EF measures were used to compare how well individual measures, as well as analytic approaches, predicted both numeracy and geometry skill. One hundred eighteen children, ages 39 to 68 months, were given EF and mathematics assessments twice, approximately six months apart, concurrent to their teachers completing an indirect assessment of EF for each child. Results suggest: (1) the child’s age determines if a panel of direct EF measures is a better predictor of numeracy and geometry skills than a single EF measure, (2) geometry and numeracy skill are influenced differently by contextual factors, and (3) the EF-geometry link may develop about six months later than the EF-numeracy connection. As the relationship between preschool age EF and mathematics is better understood, efforts can be made to improve the aspects of EF connected to mathematics skill, which may aid in performance

Preschool Mathematics Performance and Executive Function: Rural-Urban Comparisons Across Time

This longitudinal study, with urban and rural preschool children, examines the relationship between executive function (EF) and mathematics. A panel of direct and indirect measures of EF were used to determine which EF measures were most predictive and a measure of mathematics assessed both numeracy and geometry skill. One hundred eighteen children, ages 39 to 68 months, and their preschool teachers were included, with assessments given twice, about six months apart. EF measures were compared by the amount of variance in mathematics skill each claimed, including the influence of a child’s age, gender, and rural-urban context. Results suggest the child’s age determines if a panel of direct EF measures is a better predictor of numeracy and geometry skills than the use of a single EF measure. Different EF measures were more strongly related to numeracy versus geometry at Time 1 and Time 2. Differences unrelated to income were found between rural and urban children on numeracy skill but not geometry skill. These results are particularly important to state and regional early childhood directors who work across urban and rural areas, legislators and policymakers, teachers and parents

Inhibitory control and counterintuitive science and maths reasoning in adolescence

Existing concepts can be a major barrier to learning new counterintuitive concepts that contradict pre-existing experience-based beliefs or misleading perceptual cues. When reasoning about counterintuitive concepts, inhibitory control is thought to enable the suppression of incorrect concepts. This study investigated the association between inhibitory control and counterintuitive science and maths reasoning in adolescents (N=90, 11-15 years). Both response and semantic inhibition were associated with counterintuitive science and maths reasoning, when controlling for age, general cognitive ability, and performance in control science and maths trials. Better response inhibition was associated with longer reaction times in counterintuitive trials, while better semantic inhibition was associated with higher accuracy in counterintuitive trials. This novel finding suggests that different aspects of inhibitory control may offer unique contributions to counterintuitive reasoning during adolescence and provides further support for the hypothesis that inhibitory control plays a role in science and maths reasoning

Preschool Children\u27s Development in Number, Geometry, and Executive Function: A Cross-Lagged Examination

Children develop rapidly during early childhood, and this includes their mathematics and executive function (EF) skills. Past research has focused on connections between early mathematics and EF, but more work was needed to fully understand these relations. In particular, past studies have generally used numeracy-based measures to assess early mathematics, although professional guidelines indicate a more comprehensive construct that includes geometry. The research herein addresses some of the gaps of previous work as it examines unique connections between early number, geometry, and EF. One hundred eighteen preschool children from urban and rural communities, being an average age of 53 months at the beginning of the preschool year, were assessed at both the beginning and end of the preschool year. Using the TEAM, a measure of early mathematics inclusive of number and geometry, and the Head Toes Knees Shoulders (HTKS), a measure of early EF with elements of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive shift, relationships between number, geometry, and EF were examined across the preschool year, using a cross-lagged panel model. Three-way ANOVAs were also used to examine differences based on demographic factors, specifically gender, maternal education, household income, and urbanicity (defined by USDA Rural-Urban Continuum Codes). Findings indicate demographic factors played a limited role; household income was significantly associated with number skills and urbanicity with EF skills at the beginning of the preschool year. No other significant relationships based on demographic variables were found. Number skills at Time 1 universally contributed to number, geometry, and EF performance at Time 2; geometry at Time 2 was universally influenced by number, geometry, and EF at Time 1. EF played a mixed role; Time 1 EF significantly predicted Time 2 geometry, and Time 2 EF was significantly predicted by Time 1 number skills. These findings suggest that geometry is an important area of early mathematics to consider, and the relationship between mathematics and EF may be more nuanced than previously understood

How Do Executive Functions Influence Children’s Reasoning About Counterintuitive Concepts in Mathematics and Science?

Many scientific and mathematical concepts are counterintuitive because they conflict with misleading perceptual cues or incorrect naive theories that we build from our everyday experiences of the world. Executive functions (EFs) influence mathematics and science achievement, and inhibitory control (IC), in particular, might facilitate counterintuitive reasoning. Stop & Think (S&T) is a computerised learning activity that trains IC skills. It has been found effective in improving primary children’s mathematics and science academic performance in a large scale RCT trial (Palak et al., 2019; Wilkinson et al., Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 4, 296–314, 2020). The current study aimed to investigate the role of EFs and the moderating effects of S&T training on counterintuitive mathematics and science reasoning. A sample of 372 children in school Years 3 (7- to 8-year-olds) and 5 (9- to 10-year-olds) were allocated to S&T, active control or teaching as usual conditions, and completed tasks assessing verbal and visuospatial working memory (WM), IC, IQ, and counterintuitive reasoning, before and after training. Cross-sectional associations between counterintuitive reasoning and EF were found in Year 5 children, with evidence of a specific role of verbal WM. The intervention benefited counterintuitive reasoning in Year 3 children only and EF measures were not found to predict which children would most benefit from the intervention. Combined with previous research, these results suggest that individual differences in EF play a lesser role in counterintuitive reasoning in younger children, while older children show a greater association between EFs and counterintuitive reasoning and are able to apply the strategies developed during the S&T training to mathematics and science subjects. This work contributes to understanding why specifically the S&T intervention is effective. This work was preregistered with the ISRCTN registry (TRN: 54726482) on 10/10/2017

Early Indicators of Academic Difficulties in Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a genetic neurocutaneous disorder, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 3,000 persons. It is phenotypically variable disorder associated with elevated rates of intellectual disability and learning disabilities, attention problems, speech and language impairment, and executive functioning deficits. Research investigating the presentation of NF1 in preschool-age children is limited, but the data available indicate that cognitive difficulties are present and can be identified at an early age. There is also evidence from the general population that early neuropsychological deficits can be used to predict concurrent and later learning difficulties. The goal of the current study was to characterize the early learning profile of young children with NF1 and to determine which neuropsychological skills may contribute to academic difficulties. The results indicate that early learning difficulties are present and can be identified in young children with NF1. General intellectual functioning was strongly related to academic performance and accounted for many of the relations between neuropsychological and academic skills in the NF1 group. However, some specific neuropsychological skills continued to relate to foundational reading and math skills even when controlling for overall developmental level. These findings provide an indication of processing domains that may support academic skill development for future longitudinal work. Clinically, the findings suggest that cognitive screenings should be a routine part of care for young children with NF1. If appropriate interventions are implemented at an early age, academic skill development could be altered, preventing subtle learning difficulties from becoming more pronounced over time

Cognitive Dimensions of Learning in Children With Problems in Attention, Learning, and Memory.

A data-driven, transdiagnostic approach was used to identify the cognitive dimensions linked with learning in a mixed group of 805 children aged 5 to 18 years recognised as having problems in attention, learning and memory by a health or education practitioner. Assessments included phonological processing, information processing speed, short-term and working memory, and executive functions, and attainments in word reading, spelling, and maths. Data reduction methods identified three dimensions of phonological processing, processing speed and executive function for the sample as a whole. This model was comparable for children with and without ADHD. The severity of learning difficulties in literacy was linked with phonological processing skills, and in maths with executive control. Associations between cognition and learning were similar across younger and older children and individuals with and without ADHD, although stronger links between learning-related problems and both executive skills and processing speed were observed in children with ADHD. The results establish clear domain-specific cognitive pathways to learning that distinguish individuals in the heterogeneous population of children struggling to learn