Rationing Access

Protection of common natural resources is one of the foremost challenges facing our society. Since Garrett Hardin published his immensely influential The Tragedy of the Commons, theorists have contemplated the best way to save common-pool resources—national parks, fisheries, heritage sites, and fragile ecosystems—from overuse and extinction. These efforts have given rise to three principal methods: private ownership, community governance, and use restrictions. In this Essay, we present a different solution to the commons problem that has eluded the attention of theorists: access rationing. Access rationing measures rely not only on restrictions on the number of users but also on a variety of economic, informational, and technological techniques that can be readily adjusted to changing circumstances. By focusing on the point of entry, access rationing prevents harm to natural resources from arising ab initio. Furthermore, access rationing offers the twin virtues of simplicity and flexibility. Finally, access rationing has the additional advantage of transparency, as it allows members of the public and nonprofit organizations to monitor the performance of regulatory agencies. Drawing on a myriad of real-world examples, the present Essay is the first to provide a comprehensive theory of access-based measures for governing the commons

Management of societal value creation through “creating shared value” : Making corporate sustainability more systematic

This thesis was conducted as an assignment for a multinational technology corporation (“the Firm”) headquartered in Finland. The objective of this constructive research was to systematize the Firm’s sustainability strategy by developing a tailored solution for managing societal value creation. Additionally, theoretical understanding of corporate sustainability was refined. Corporate sustainability can no longer be regarded as an optional endeavour due to immense stakeholder pressure. In general, managers have recognized this issue, but they are poorly equipped to implement such aspirations systematically. Literature on corporate sustainability is also disharmonious, boasting a multitude of overlapping concepts with vague definitions and disputed characteristics. Accordingly, this thesis aims to tie up the loose ends in both theoretical and managerial domains of corporate sustainability by drawing on the concept of creating shared value (CSV). Systematization of corporate sustainability is studied with a pragmatic orientation in the context of for-profit organizations. Firstly, the meaning of CSV for business is elaborated. Secondly, contemporary operationalization methods of CSV are synthesized. Lastly, a new framework for managing societal value creation is constructed which aims to solve the Firm’s problem of fragmented sustainability practices. The construction was grounded in a diversified literature review and tailored according to empirical findings on the Firm’s context. This data was collected with standardized open-ended interviews and extracted perceptions were compared with official documents. Finally, the resulting construct was validated by subjecting it to a weak market test to Firm executives. The theoretical contribution was based on a refined conception of CSV. Its original definition was accepted but it was supplemented with enhanced definitional demarcation, role of firms, role of CSV in society, and analytical rigour. Managerial contribution centred on breaking down the complexity related to societal value creation initiatives. Due to being an intensive qualitative study, the theoretical contribution can be generalized analytically whereas the managerial contribution may be generalizable on a case-to-case basis to other firms in similar contexts. Promising avenues for future research were identified especially in terms of internally coherent sustainability performance measurement systems.Tämä konstruktiivinen tutkimus toteutettiin toimeksiantona suomalaiselle teknologiateollisuuden yritykselle (“Yritys”), jolla on myös toimintaa kansainvälisesti. Tavoitteena oli systematisoida Yrityksen vastuullisuuskäytäntöjä yhteiskunnallisen arvonluonnin kontekstissa ja tuottaa tähän räätälöity prosessi. Lisäksi tutkimus pyrki edistämään teoreettista ymmärrystä vastuullisesta liiketoiminnasta ja kehittämään sen jalkauttamiskäytäntöjä. Kasvavan institutionaalisen paineen takia vastuullisen liiketoiminnan harjoittamisesta on tullut yrityksille pakollista toimintaedellytysten turvaamiseksi. Yritysjohtajat tunnistavat tämän tilanteen, mutta heillä ei tyypillisesti ole asianmukaista ymmärrystä tai menetelmiä vastuullisuuden jalkauttamiseen. Kirjallisuudessa on myös runsaasti erimielisyyksiä vastuullisuuskäsitteistä ja niiden merkityksistä. Tämä tutkimus kuroo umpeen nykytietämyksen aukkokohtia hyödyntämällä jaetun arvonluonnin käsitettä (creating shared value eli CSV). Vastuullisuustoiminnan systematisointi rajataan voittoa tavoitteleviin organisaatioihin ja sitä lähestytään pragmaattisesti seuraavilla tutkimuskysymyksillä: 1) mitä jaettu arvonluonti merkitsee liiketoiminnalle, 2) millaisia jaetun arvonluonnin operationalisointikeinoja on nykykirjallisuudessa ja 3) millainen viitekehys Yritykselle tulisi kehittää yhteiskunnallisen arvonluonnin johtamiseen. Ratkaisun rakentaminen perustui monialaiseen kirjallisuuskatsaukseen ja se räätälöitiin Yrityksen nykytilan ja tarpeiden mukaan. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin puolistrukturoiduilla haastatteluilla ja vertaamalla näitä havaintoja Yrityksen virallisiin asiakirjoihin. Konstruktiolle suoritettiin lopuksi heikko markkinatesti haastattelemalla Yrityksen johtohenkilöitä. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen kontribuutio perustui CSV-käsitteen jalostamiseen. Sen alkuperäinen määritelmä hyväksyttiin, mutta sitä täydennettiin selkeämmällä rajauksella, CSV:tä käyttävien yritysten roolilla, CSV:n yhteiskunnallisella roolilla sekä analyyttisyydellä. Liikkeenjohdollinen kontribuutio keskittyi yhteiskunnallisen arvonluonnin kompleksisuuden purkamiseen. Koska kyseessä oli intensiivinen kvalitatiivinen tutkimus, voidaan teoreettinen kontribuutio yleistää analyyttisesti ja liikkeenjohdollinen kontribuutio voitaneen yleistää case-to-case –periaatteella muihin yrityksiin samankaltaisissa konteksteissa. Mahdollisuudet tuleville tutkimuksille ovat lupaavia etenkin aiempaa johdonmukaisempien vastuullisuussuorituskykyä mittaavien järjestelmien kehittämisessä

Standardized contracts with swing for the market-supported procurement of energy and reserve

These are the key findings for the SC system: permits full, separate, market-based compensation for service availability and service performance (FERC Order 755); facilitates a level playing field for market participation; facilitates co-optimization of energy and reserve markets; supports forward-market trading of energy and reserve; permits service providers to offer flexible service availability; provides system operators with real-time flexibility in service usage; facilitates accurate load forecasting and following of dispatch signals; permits resources to internally manage UC and capacity constraint; permits the robust-control management of uncertain net load; eliminates the need for out-of-market payment adjustments; and reduces the complexity of market rules

Improving the Retention of United States (U.S.) Government Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Employees

The U.S. government workforce has been consistently shrinking since a peak in the 1990s. At the same time, the need for technologically-savvy government workers has dramatically risen in this same period. This divergence in the demand for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) employees challenges government leaders to retain these highly demanded workers in the public sector. Decades of psychological research across many industries has investigated what motivates workers and how best to incentivize them to increase productivity. Maslow and Herzberg, among others, theorized that adult workers have both intrinsic and extrinsic needs that drive their behaviors and resultant productivity. Following from those early psychological explorations, extensive Public Service Motivation theory and Job Design studies provide the scaffolding on which management of federal government employees is built. A number of themes emerged from these studies which affect public service personnel: competitive pay and benefits, bureaucracy, human resources, career options, personnel development. These themes are used to develop human capital policies that drive managerial incentives intended to motivate their employees. Traditionally, these studies focus only on groups of current civil servants. This dissertation was a two-phased explanatory sequential mixed-method investigation into STEM workers who departed federal service. The first phase was a quantitative examination into former employees’ motivations and decisions leading up to their departure; sample size = 73. Phase 2 qualitatively inquired into eight intentionally selected interviewees about the factors that influenced their decision-making process. Regression analysis of the responses showed a significant positive correlation between Years of Government Service with Decision Making Autonomy and Task Significance. In short, this means that if a person has meaningful work and the self-authority to complete it, they will stay working longer. The Phase 2 interviews brought one additional important piece to the conclusions which is that supervisors are the key factor in motivation and retention. The results are in line with predictions of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene approach to motivation. Recommendations were made to improve the control and impact of first-line supervisors; such as to standardize and monitor supervisor training; and, to implement a talent management program

Facilitating appropriate compensation of electric energy and reserve through standardized contracts with swing

Three key issues have arisen for centrally-managed wholesale electric power markets in Europe and the United States as they attempt to handle an increased penetration of variable energy resources. First, rigid definitions for energy and reserve products make it difficult to ensure appropriate compensation for important needed flexibility in start-up times, ramp-rates, power dispatch levels, and duration. Second, participation restrictions hinder the achievement of an even playing field for potential providers of flexible services. Third, reliance on out-of-market compensation for the provision of some valued services encourages strategic manipulation. This study examines the possibility of addressing these three issues through the introduction of standardized energy and reserve contracts with swing (flexibility) in their contractual terms. Concrete examples are used to demonstrate how the trading of these standardized contracts can be supported by linked forward markets in a manner that permits efficient real-time balancing of net load subject to system and reserve-requirement constraints. Comparisons with existing wholesale electric power markets are given, and key policy implications are highlighted