The Complexities of Self-Tracking - An Inquiry into User Reactions and Goal Attainment

The activity of self-tracking is an emerging trend that often involves adopting wearable technology. Vendors promise new personal insights and opportunities to optimize health and lifestyle by adopting such devices. Spurred by these promises, users are also driven by curiosity and exploration to adopt and use the device with the aim of quantifying the self for the purpose of self-knowledge through numbers. We investigate the interplay of technology, data and the experience of self during the adoption and use of wearable technology as a pre-commitment device. The empirical focus lies on two self-tracking devices, which track moving and sleeping activities on a daily basis. 42 interviews were conducted with users of self-tracking devices. The findings suggest that self-tracking activity through wearable technology does not necessarily lead to behavioural change, but predominately works as a re-focusing device. In this light, the user experiences tensions between rational and emotional behaviours when reflecting on personal data. The results contribute to a more nuanced understanding of adoption of the emerging wearable technology in daily life and how users deal with the personal data by developing coping tactics, such as disregard, procrastination, selective attribution and neglect

Another Step towards the Understanding of Self-Tracking: A Research Model and Pilot Test

Regular physical activity prevents the development of numerous diseases. Despite this knowledge, approximately 80% of the world’s adolescent population leads a sedentary lifestyle. Insurances are trying to facilitate physical activity through supporting the use of self-tracking applications. Although the usefulness of self-tracking is widely presumed, only a few studies investigate the influence of self-tracking on behavior and those few studies have published contradictory results. To provide an explanation for the different reactions, we propose a research model and measurements based on the cognitive dissonance theory. The research model proposes that self-tracking leads to a higher awareness of two inconsistent cognitions. This awareness induces cognitive dissonance. Since cognitive dissonance is experienced as a psychological tension, people try to reduce it by changing their behavior, finding new information or ignoring the situation. We tested our measurements with a pilot test and found good first indicators for construct validity

If You Are Happy and DON\u27T Know IT: Continuance? Analyzing Emotion Carry-Over Effects in Activity Tracking Continuance Decisions

Activity tracking devices and apps are positioned to enhance healthy behavior. Albeit positive outcomes are widely anticipated, many users abandon their devices and apps after short time which raises concerns about their effectiveness. Studies indicate that self-tracking can provoke –positive but particularly negative– emotions with which individuals have to cope. Though studying emotions in IS usage is gaining attention, the role of system-unrelated emotions has been largely neglected yet has been shown to play an important role in human behavior. To address this gap, this study theorizes how system-unrelated emotions ‘carry-over’ into activity tracking continuance decisions. Results of an experimental survey largely support the ‘carry-over’ effect in continuance decisions – particularly for less experienced users. Our study thereby contributes to the growing self-tracking literature but also to research on emotions in IS usage by highlighting the powerful role of system-unrelated emotions

How Does Self-Tracking Go? A Research Model and Pre-Test

Physical inactivity has become a serious problem in modern societies leading to a multitude of diseases. Insurer try to counteract this problem by supporting the use of self-tracking applications. While the effectiveness of self-tracking applications is widely assumed, scant studies investigate the influence of self-tracking applications and those few studies show different results. We propose a research model and measurements based on the cognitive dissonance theory to explain how and why self-tracking influences behavior. This understanding is of critical importance for the design of effective self-tracking applications. Specifically, we propose that the usage of step-counter apps leads to a higher awareness of two inconsistent cognitions, which induce cognitive dissonance. Because people strive for consistency, they try to reduce the dissonance through either ignoring the situation, finding new information or behavior change. We tested our measurements with an item-sort-task and found high substantive validity as an indicator for good construct validity

Continuously Healthy, Continuously Used? – A Thematic Analysis of User Perceptions on Consumer Health Wearables

Along with the miniaturization of digital devices, consumer health wearables (CHWs) further decrease the distance between users and devices, allowing users to continuously track their personal health information (PHI). While this provides more control to users, history has shown that users’ potential concerns (e.g. privacy) can lead to devices not meeting users’ expectations and failing market diffusion. The existing literature has mostly focused on particular aspects that could foster or hinder adoption of CHWs but the big picture is still missing. Drawing upon the previous literature, we use a rigorous iterative thematic analysis to provide a comprehensive picture of any potential benefits and deficiencies that users associate with CHWs. We take the example of fitness trackers and conduct 16 semi-structured interviews that help understand the determinants on which users assess the benefits and deficiencies of CHWs related to their continuous usage. We identify 11 subthemes that we can attribute to three main user determinants (perceived benefit, deficiency, and privacy). Our results not only show the failure to meet privacy expectations as a particular potential hindrance factor, we further propose a new theoretical construct (perceived relativity) as well as a novel tracking motive (social tracking), both of which can benefit future research on PHI disclosure. We enable both researchers and practitioners to uncover and visualize user perceptions of fitness trackers, on which future design decisions can be oriented and user expectations be better met. Available at: https://aisel.aisnet.org/pajais/vol11/iss1/5

Self-Tracking and Gamification: Analyzing the Interplay of Motivations, Usage and Motivation Fulfillment

The usage of wearable self-tracking devices has emerged as a big trend in lifestyle and personal optimization concerning health, fitness, and well-being. In this context, gamification elements have the potential to contribute to achieving desired user behavior. However, it is not fully understood to which extent the users perceive their self-tracking motivations as being fulfilled through the usage of a wearable self-tracking device, and how gamification affects the interplay of self-tracking motivations, wearable self-tracking device usage, and motivation fulfillment. To address this research gap, we develop a conceptual model and validate it with survey research and structural equation modeling. We find that self-tracking helps users to unexpectedly fulfill motivations without previously striving for them and that significant differences exist between the gamification users and non-users with respect to their motivations by self-entertainment and self-design

Activity Tracking Affordances: Identification and Instrument Development

Activity tracking apps –such as Fitbit or Nike+ Running– are positioned to enhance people’s motivation towards physical activity and healthy behavior. Though various ‘motivational’ features are incorporated, the effectiveness of these apps is often mixed raising concerns about the ‘one-size-fits-all‘ applicability. To get a better understanding about the nature of using activity tracking apps, this paper employs the lens of affordances and identifies eight particular salient affordances in activity tracking: Self-Monitoring, Performance Analysis, Exercise Guidance, Rewards, Social Comparison, Watching Others, Social Recognition, and Self-Presentation. Moreover, this study develops a corresponding measurement instrument evaluated using q-sort methodology. Avenues for future research are highlighted involving the set of affordances and their instruments and practical implications are given

Formative Research on an Instructional Design Theory for Fostering Self-Efficacy Through Gamification

The merits of gamification as a learner-centered pedagogy that positively influences learner engagement and motivation are widely established in the literature; yet, few studies have ventured beyond motivation to consider the impact gamification has on self-efficacy. Moreover, guidance for the effective design and development of gamified instruction is lacking. This study describes formative research conducted on the Gamification for Enhancing Learner Self-Efficacy (GELSE) instructional design theory, which was developed to guide the design of gamification aimed at fostering self-efficacy. The goal of formative research is to identify improvements for an instructional design theory based on a designed instance of the theory. The GELSE theory was applied to an undergraduate community health nursing course in a fully online, accelerated degree program. The theory was evaluated by answering the following questions: 1) What methods of the GELSE instructional design theory were perceived to be more effective?, 2) What methods of the GELSE instructional design theory were perceived to be less effective?, and 3) What improvements can be made to the GELSE instructional design theory?. Data was collected in this qualitative study through open-ended questionnaires, focus group interviews, semi-structured one-on-one interviews, and observations of online learner activities and social interactions. The results show that the GELSE instructional design theory is effectual for guiding the design of gamified instruction intended to foster learner self-efficacy. Additionally, the findings from the research yielded a number of recommendations for improving the GELSE theory