THE IMPACT OF INDIVIDUAL AND CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ON L2 WRITING DEVELOPMENT: THE SHIFTS IN WRITTEN CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK DURING COVID-19

The novel COVID-19 pandemic has caused a rupture in the trajectory of education worldwide. Students, families and schools are experiencing unprecedented times and are navigating uncharted territory together in how we educate our students. In the U.S., it has been noted that the schism within education as a result of the pandemic is the biggest threat to national security (Choi, 2020), noting the importance of education within our democracy. This includes the trauma experienced by families due to deaths caused by the pandemic, the disproportionality of communities of color losing a parent (Brundage & Ramos-Callan, 2020), and the impact on English language development within immigrant communities and Multilingual Learners (Kim 2020). Even prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Multilingual Learners, specifically English Language Learners (ELLs), is one of the fastest growing student populations across the United States (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2017), and yet has some of the lowest graduation rates, such as in New York (NYSED, 2021). This study seeks to build equity and access of effective instruction through the exploration of one of the biggest challenges for ELLs within academic settings, which is writing, as linguistic errors in L2 writing are pervasive (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012). Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) is a ubiquitous classroom practice in second language (L2) writing development that directly seeks to increase morphosyntactic accuracy (Kang and Han, 2015). This study performed a case study of an English as a New Language (ENL) high school teacher and three Newcomer ELLs within one of the “Big 5” school districts in New York. Guided by Sociocultural Theory from an ecological perspective, data were collected during the Fall 2020 school re-opening during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 has positioned schools to integrate more digital tools in their interactions with their students, including feedback. ELL student writing samples with their teacher’s WCF, revisions, interviews, retrospective verbal reports, and classroom artifacts were collected to form cases for intra and inter case analysis to identify the individual and contextual factors that mediate L2 learners’ writing development during the pandemic

Engaging Middle School Emergent Bilinguals in Language Awareness: A Practitioner Researcher Study

This practitioner research study (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009) traced the journey toward critical literacy of a group of seven emergent bilinguals and me, their teacher, over the course of a four-month unit on argument as part of our English for Speakers of Other Languages 3 (ESOL3) class. Many of these students, like many emergent bilinguals in the United States, had been disempowered because they had not had access to the academic texts of school. As part of this research, students worked with tools of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) to analyze the interpersonal, ideational and textual metafunctions of argumentation in lessons on consumerism, protest, debate and a project of their choice. Also in this study, I describe my own learning of critical SFL as it empowered me to more fully understand language choices and guided my lessons. Using fieldnotes, my researcher’s journal, transcripts, and student work samples, I explored the following research questions: (1) What transformations occurred when middle school emergent bilinguals were invited to critically analyze discourse practices as part of their ESOL 3 class? What patterns of interactions, discourses and stances emerged as salient? and (2) In what ways can this critical language awareness support their literacy development and mastery of academic language? Through inferential analysis guided by these research questions, the themes of power and choice at the individual, school and district level arose and proved key in creating an environment ripe for student learning. A critical approach, which draws on power, voice, and identity, supported my students’ engagement with spoken and written texts. Often time, it is thought that students who struggle with English Language Arts, especially long-term English learners, must learn the ‘basics’ before proceeding to ‘critical’ literacies. Yet, what I have shown is a critical genre approach was the gateway for my emergent bilinguals to advance their academic literacies, written argumentations, and agency as people. In addition, I have demonstrated the power of context-rich practitioner research. Throughout the study, using a critical SFL lens while teaching made possible the layers of analysis and adaptation both before and during each class necessary to more fully engage emergent bilinguals to construct, deconstruct, critique and reshape academic language in contexts they found meaningful

Profiles of Second Language Learners in Bilingual Education: A Comparative Study of the Characteristics of Finnish and American Students

The purpose of this comparative study is to profile second language learners by exploring the factors which have an impact on their learning. The subjects come from two different countries: one group comes from Milwaukee, US, and the other from Turku, Finland. The subjects have attended bilingual classes from elementary school to senior high school in their respective countries. In the United States, the subjects (N = 57) started in one elementary school from where they moved on to two high schools in the district. The Finnish subjects (N = 39) attended the same school from elementary to high school. The longitudinal study was conducted during 1994-2004 and combines both qualitative and quantitative research methods. A Pilot Study carried out in 1990-1991 preceded the two subsequent studies that form the core material of this research. The theoretical part of the study focuses first on language policies in the United States and Finland: special emphasis is given to the history, development and current state of bilingual education, and the factors that have affected policy-making in the provision of language instruction. Current language learning theories and models form the theoretical foundation of the research, and underpin the empirical studies. Cognitively-labeled theories are at the forefront, but sociocultural theory and the ecological approach are also accounted for. The research methods consist of questionnaires, compositions and interviews. A combination of statistical methods as well as content analysis were used in the analysis. The attitude of the bilingual learners toward L1 and L2 was generally positive: the subjects enjoyed learning through two languages and were motivated to learn both. The knowledge of L1 and parental support, along with early literacy in L1, facilitated the learning of L2. This was particularly evident in the American subject group. The American subjects’ L2 learning was affected by the attitudes of the learners to the L1 culture and its speakers. Furthermore, the negative attitudes taken by L1 speakers toward L2 speakers and the lack of opportunities to engage in activities in the L1 culture affected the American subjects’ learning of L2, English. The research showed that many American L2 learners were isolated from the L1 culture and were even afraid to use English in everyday communication situations. In light of the research results, a politically neutral linguistic environment, which the Finnish subjects inhabited, was seen to be more favorable for learning. The Finnish subjects were learning L2, English, in a neutral zone where their own attitudes and motivation dictated their learning. The role of L2 as a means of international communication in Finland, as opposed to a means of exercising linguistic power, provided a neutral atmosphere for learning English. In both the American and Finnish groups, the learning of other languages was facilitated when the learner had a good foundation in their L1, and the learning of L1 and L2 were in balance. Learning was also fostered when the learners drew positive experiences from their surroundings and were provided with opportunities to engage in activities where L2 was used.Tämä tutkimus on kvantitatiivis-kvalitatiivinen pitkittäistutkimus, jonka avulla pyritään luonnehtimaan toisen kielen oppijoiden profiileja ja oppimisen laatuun vaikuttavia tekijöitä kaksikielisessä opetuksessa. Tutkimuksen koehenkilöt tulevat kahdesta eri maasta: Yhdysvalloista ja Suomesta. Yhdysvalloissa koehenkilöt (N=57) opiskelivat Milwaukeen kaupungissa ensin ala-asteella, ja sitten kahdessa eri lukiossa. Suomen koehenkilöjoukko (N= 39) opiskeli koko koulu-uran samassa koulussa Turun kaupungissa. Pilottitutkimus toteutettiin vuonna 1990-1991, minkä jälkeen varsinainen tutkimusaineisto kerättiin vuosina 1994-2004. Tutkimuksen teoreettisessa taustassa luodaan aluksi katsaus Yhdysvaltojen ja Suomen kieli ja koulutuspolitiikkaan ja tarkastellaan erityisesti kaksikielisen opetuksen historiaa ja nykytilannetta sekä koulupoliittiseen päätöksentekoon vaikuttavia seikkoja. Kielen oppimisen teoreettisen taustan muodostavat vieraan kielen oppimisen mallit. Kognitiivispainotteisten mallien lisäksi lähtökohtia empiirisille tutkimuksille antavat sosiokulttuurinen teoria sekä ekologinen lähestymistapa kielen oppimiseen. Tutkimusmenetelminä käytettiin kyselylomakkeita, haastattelua ja oppimispäiväkirjoja. Aineistoa kuvataan tilastollisin menetelmin ja sisältöanalyysin periaatteita soveltaen. Tulosten mukaan kaksikieliset oppilaat suhtautuivat pääosin myönteisesti kahdella kielellä opiskeluun ja olivat motivoituneita kielten opiskeluun. Taustatekijöistä nousivat esille ensimmäisen kielen osaaminen ja vanhempien merkitys äidinkielen kehityksen tukemisessa. Tämä tulos korostui yhdysvaltalaisessa aineistossa. Yhdysvalloissa toisen kielen, englannin, oppimiseen vaikuttivat oppijan asenne valtakulttuurin edustajiin, koettu valtakielen puhujien negatiivinen suhtautuminen toisena kielenä englantia puhuviin ja osallistumismahdollisuudet ympäristön tarjoamiin aktiviteetteihin. Tutkimuksessa kävi ilmi myös yhdysvaltalaisten koehenkilöiden eristäytyminen englanninkielisestä valtakulttuurista ja suoranaiset pelot käyttää englantia kommunikoinnissa. Tutkimustulosten valossa näyttää siltä, että suomalainen, kielipoliittisesti yhdysvaltalaista neutraalimpi ympäristö oli suotuisa englannin oppimiselle. Ympäristön paineiden puuttuessa suomenkielisillä koehenkilöillä oli voitettavanaan vain omat asenteet ja motivoiduttava kielen opiskeluun. Englannin asema kansainvälisenä kommunikoinnin välineenä, ei niinkään valtakulttuurin kielenä, tarjosi suomalaisille koehenkilöille hyvän lähtökohdan oppimiselle. Sekä suomalaisilla että yhdysvaltalaisilla koehenkilöillä ensimmäisen kielen oppiminen ja sen tukeminen kotona edesauttoivat toisen kielen oppimista. Kahden kielen oppiminen onnistuu hyvin, kun niiden oppiminen on tasapainossa koulussa ja ympäristön asenne on positiivinen toisen kielen käyttäjiä kohtaan ja tarjoaa mahdollisuuksia toisen kielen käyttämiseksi.Siirretty Doriast

Reimagining Multilingualism From the Heritage Speaker Perspective: A View of Language Brokering Through the Lens of Translanguaging and Resemiotization

This study examines the experiences and ideologies of heritage language speakers in the United States who have shouldered the responsibility of interpreting and translating for their families since childhood. These “language brokers” (Tse, 1995) are often “circumstantial bilinguals” (Valdés & Figueroa, 1994) who have maintained their heritage language out of necessity in order to interpret and translate for their parents. Many of these heritage speakers continue their roles as language brokers as adults (Del Torto, 2008), interpreting and translating for their families in increasingly complex situations as their parents age. However, despite the complexities of these language brokering (LB) interactions and the value that they bring for those involved, there remains a deficit view of heritage speakers, whose heritage language proficiency is often assessed negatively against ideal native speaker standards (cf. Benmamoun, Montrul, & Polinsky, 2013b). Building on recent studies of adult language brokers (e.g. Guan, Nash, & Orellana, 2016; Sherman & Homoláč, 2017), I explore the LB experiences of heritage speakers living in the United States through the frameworks of translanguaging (García, 2009a; García & Li, 2013) and resemiotization (Iedema, 2001, 2003). Using a sequential transformative mixed-methods design (Creswell et al., 2003), I surveyed and interviewed adult heritage speakers across the United States about their LB experiences during childhood and adulthood. I also video recorded authentic LB interactions for linguistic and semiotic analysis using myself as a researcher-participant. Findings indicate that heritage speakers perceived language brokering as a normal part of their lives with functions that go beyond mediating communication. Most participants attributed their heritage language maintenance to their LB experiences, but they also expressed a deficit view of their heritage language proficiency. While almost all participants identified themselves as native English speakers, they felt ambivalent about identifying themselves as native speakers of their heritage language. This ambivalence stems from how heritage speakers compared their heritage language proficiency to their own English proficiency and imagined native speaker standards. Implications from these findings suggest the prevalence of standard language ideology (Lippi-Green, 1994, 2012) among heritage speakers, whose LB experiences simultaneously challenge and perpetuate deficit ideologies of heritage speakers

Teachers\u27 Perceptions of Accent on Formative Reading Assessments

Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs) constitute the largest language minority subgroup and are the fastest growing school-age population in the United States (McCardle, Mele-McCarthy, & Leos, 2005). Despite the fact that the number of Latino children is increasing, the educational gains made by these children are not (Aud et al., 2011; Braswell, Daane, & Grigg, 2003; Reardon & Galindo, 2009). The current study investigates the influence a child’s accent (i.e., Spanish accent, Southern American English accent, and ‘standard’ American English accent) has on teachers’ reading assessments. Eighty-two elementary school teachers from a large city in the southeast participated in this study. Results indicate that teachers without a reading endorsement showed significant variation in their scoring of the child with the Spanish accent compared to the two European-American, native English-speaking children, suggesting that teachers’ reading endorsements matter to their language and literacy practices. Additionally, teachers’ attitudes were significantly higher for the child with the Spanish accent compared to the child with the ‘standard’ accent, regardless of the endorsements they held. Last, teachers’ attitudes toward the child with the Spanish accent were significantly and moderately correlated with their reading scores. This finding indicates that teachers’ language attitudes might be impacting the accuracy of their evaluations for Spanish speaking Dual Language Learners. Findings from this study provide insight into how teachers’ language attitudes may contribute to the reading achievement gap between DLLs and their European American, native English-speaking peers. NOTE: A previous version of this dissertation misidentified the author of: McDorman, Richard E. (2012). Understanding African-American English (AAE). http://www.richardmcdorman.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Understanding-African-American-English_Richard-E-McDorman.pd

CRITICAL CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING ARABIC AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TAFL): A CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF A US COLLEGE-LEVEL COURSE

A gap in the critical cultural research paradigm in foreign language teaching (FLT) and teaching Arabic as a foreign language (TAFL) at the college level in the U.S. context subsists. FLT and TAFL have been characterized by the prevalence of the communicative and proficiency-based pedagogies and their concomitant research frameworks. This prevalence is tied to the growing neoliberal and terror rhetoric in recent years (Kramsch, 2005; Bernstein et al., 2015). In the face of the latter, a need for critical cultural frameworks of teaching and research became plausible to deconstruct the different clichés and biases in the context of Arabic teaching, and namely in this study, the stereotyping techniques that Arabs and Muslims have been experiencing since the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Morey & Yaqin, 2011; Kramsch, 2005). The ultimate goal is to provide insights on culturally inclusive pedagogies in the Arabic and foreign language classrooms. I corresponded to the gap mentioned above through a critical deconstruction of the development of cultural representations across a variety of classroom discourses in an advanced college-level Arabic course. In so doing, I benefited from the critical ethnographic orientation for data collection, (Carspecken, 1996; Madison, 2012; Emerson, Fretz & Shaw, 2011), critical discourse analysis (CDA) (Fairclough, 2003, 2008), and thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) for data analysis. Through CDA (Fairclough, 2008), I analyzed two readings and two subsequent in-class debate activities to critically disclose the types of cultural representations constructed in them vis-à-vis their ideological underpinnings as well as the macro- and micro-contextual elements that construe them. Via thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), I analyzed the participants’ interviews to pin down the factors that informed or hindered their cultural engagements with the course’s materials Conclusions are concerned with six points: 1- Texts are ideological artifacts, and they potentially play a role in the augmentation of cultural stereotypes, 2- instructional genres may contribute to the development of cultural clichés, 3- students’ perceptions of Arab cultures may entail cultural decontextualization and labeling, 4- semantics and syntax might represent incentives as well as barriers for cultural growth, 5- goals for Arabic learning may range from economic to social incentives, and 6- the immersion and shared cultural experiences are potential means for cultural connections. Findings suggest recommendations for teaching and research that can enhance inclusive cultural engagements to challenge the cultural labeling dynamics and the neoliberal drive in the foreign language classroom context. The latter can be achieved via reading texts against the grain, deconstruction of the instructional genre, drawing on the immersion and personal experiences as means for all-encompassing cultural engagements, emphasizing non-neoliberal language learning goals, and reconceptualizing the learning of semantics and syntax in foreign language teaching

Opinion Writing of Native Spanish and Native English Speakers in College Developmental Education Courses

The aim of this study is to examine argumentative writing produced by students of differing language backgrounds and skill level to inform future instructional approaches and program design. An archival corpus of opinion essays written by native Spanish speaking students and native English speaking students enrolled in community college developmental education courses was utilized. The essays consisted of one to two paragraphs expressing an opinion on a controversial topic. In the study, the essays were assessed for the overall persuasiveness of the text, the use of academic words, the incorporation of connectives as a measure of lexical cohesion, the use of argumentative structural elements, and the inclusion of functional elements within the text produced. The relationship between native language and six structural and lexical features were examined utilizing a one-way Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA). After controlling for paragraph length and reading ability, results indicated that native Spanish speaking students produced more standpoint structural elements than English speaking students. None of the other dependent variables were significant. A Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) was employed to explore the variability in the persuasiveness of the opinion writing. Utilizing this mode of analysis, it was revealed that overall persuasiveness in the students’ opinion writing was mainly a function of higher word counts, a higher percentage of academic words, more standpoint structural elements, and being a native English speaking student. Finally, pedagogical implications are discussed