1,766 research outputs found

    Evolution of adaptation mechanisms: adaptation energy, stress, and oscillating death

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    In 1938, H. Selye proposed the notion of adaptation energy and published "Experimental evidence supporting the conception of adaptation energy". Adaptation of an animal to different factors appears as the spending of one resource. Adaptation energy is a hypothetical extensive quantity spent for adaptation. This term causes much debate when one takes it literally, as a physical quantity, i.e. a sort of energy. The controversial points of view impede the systematic use of the notion of adaptation energy despite experimental evidence. Nevertheless, the response to many harmful factors often has general non-specific form and we suggest that the mechanisms of physiological adaptation admit a very general and nonspecific description. We aim to demonstrate that Selye's adaptation energy is the cornerstone of the top-down approach to modelling of non-specific adaptation processes. We analyse Selye's axioms of adaptation energy together with Goldstone's modifications and propose a series of models for interpretation of these axioms. {\em Adaptation energy is considered as an internal coordinate on the `dominant path' in the model of adaptation}. The phenomena of `oscillating death' and `oscillating remission' are predicted on the base of the dynamical models of adaptation. Natural selection plays a key role in the evolution of mechanisms of physiological adaptation. We use the fitness optimization approach to study of the distribution of resources for neutralization of harmful factors, during adaptation to a multifactor environment, and analyse the optimal strategies for different systems of factors

    On Organizations and Oligarchies: Michels in the Twenty-First Century

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    [Excerpt] A central problem for those interested in studying and explaining the actions of organizations is how to conceptualize these social phenomena. In particular, because organizations are constituted by individuals, each of whom may seek to achieve his or her interests through the organization, questions of how decisions are made in organizations and whose preferences drive those decisions are critical to explaining organizational actions. Although early organizational scholars spent much time wrestling with these questions (e.g. Barnard 1938; Simon 1947; Parsons 1956; March and Simon 1958), more recent work in organizational studies has tended to elide them, adopting an implicit view of organizations as unitary actors, much like individuals, and in particular, like individuals who operate with a coherent utility function that they seek to maximize (e.g. Porter 1985; Baum et al. 2005; Casciaro and Piskorski 2005; Mezias and Boyle 2005; Jensen 2006). Thus, organizational behavior is seen as reflecting efforts to achieve a specific goal, which is, presumably, that of enhancing the organizations interests. While this may be the dominant conceptualization underlying much contemporary research, other work sharply questions the validity and usefulness of this approach to organizational analysis (March and Simon 1958; Cohen, March, and Olsen 1972; Jackall 1988). Studies in this tradition suggest that it is more appropriate in most instances to conceive of organizations as battlefields, constituted by shifting factions with differing interests that vie for control of the organization; hence, organizational actions should be viewed as reflecting the preferences of a victorious coalition at a given point in time. We suspect that, although most people’s experience in organizations may make them sympathetic to the coalitional view and skeptical of the unitary actor view, the continuing predilection for the latter stems at least in part from problems of deriving systematic predictions of organizational behavior from a more chaotic, coalitional kaleidoscope perspective. A different model of organizations is represented in the work of Robert Michels (1876-1936), who, nearly a century ago, offered his now-famous, pithy summary of the fundamental nature of organizations ([1911] 1962: 365): ‘Who says organization, says oligarchy.’ Drawing on his own experiences with early twentieth-century German political party organizations, Michels presented the drift to oligarchy as an ‘iron law’, inevitably resulting in the division of even the most expressly democratic organizations into two parts: a small stable set of elites and all the other members. His analysis offered a catalog of the processes and forces that produced such a division, and he postulated that the directives of the elite, while nominally reflecting the set of interests shared by all members, in actuality are driven by their own personal interests in the organization. His provocative (and very pessimistic) arguments have served as the basis for many studies over the years, particularly of organizations specifically formed to represent the interests of groups seeking to promote change in political arenas. Much of this work has been focused on assessing the purported inevitability of the emergence of oligarchies and defining the conditions of the iron law—i.e. those that affect the realization (or suppression) of oligarchic tendencies. In this chapter, we argue that Michels’s core arguments about the nature of oligarchies in organizations, and research generated in response to his work, are not only relevant to understanding the dynamics of political organizations but can be extended as a useful framework for thinking about important aspects of contemporary economic corporations as well. In making this argument, we highlight the parallels between Berle and Means’s analysis (1932) of modern, publicly held corporations and that of Michels. Both analyses address the general organizational problem of ensuring representation of members’ interests. In political organizations, it is the rank-and-file members’ interests that leaders are charged with representing; in publicly held organizations, leaders are primarily responsible for representing the interests of stockholders, as the nominal owners’ of the firm. In this context, we consider evidence and research on problematic corporate behavior to show how Michels’s work provides a useful framework for understanding these problems and for formulating ways of addressing them

    Fourteenth Biennial Status Report: März 2017 - February 2019

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    Prolegomena to a Future Science of Biolinguistics

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    This essay reviews some of the problems that face biolinguistics if it is to someday succeed in understanding human language from a biological and evolutionary viewpoint. Although numerous sociological problems impede progress at present, these are ultimately soluble. The greater challenges include delineating the computational mechanisms that underlie different aspects of language competence, as implemented in the brain, and under-standing the epigenetic processes by which they arise. The ultimate chal-lenge will be to develop a theory of meaning incorporating non-linguistic conceptual representations, as they exist in the mind of a dog or chimpan-zee, which requires extensions of information theory incorporating context-dependence and relevance. Each of these problems is daunting alone; to-gether they make understanding the biology of language one of the most challenging sets of problems in modern science

    Towards an Information Theoretic Framework for Evolutionary Learning

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    The vital essence of evolutionary learning consists of information flows between the environment and the entities differentially surviving and reproducing therein. Gain or loss of information in individuals and populations due to evolutionary steps should be considered in evolutionary algorithm theory and practice. Information theory has rarely been applied to evolutionary computation - a lacuna that this dissertation addresses, with an emphasis on objectively and explicitly evaluating the ensemble models implicit in evolutionary learning. Information theoretic functionals can provide objective, justifiable, general, computable, commensurate measures of fitness and diversity. We identify information transmission channels implicit in evolutionary learning. We define information distance metrics and indices for ensembles. We extend Price\u27s Theorem to non-random mating, give it an effective fitness interpretation and decompose it to show the key factors influencing heritability and evolvability. We argue that heritability and evolvability of our information theoretic indicators are high. We illustrate use of our indices for reproductive and survival selection. We develop algorithms to estimate information theoretic quantities on mixed continuous and discrete data via the empirical copula and information dimension. We extend statistical resampling. We present experimental and real world application results: chaotic time series prediction; parity; complex continuous functions; industrial process control; and small sample social science data. We formalize conjectures regarding evolutionary learning and information geometry

    Learning and Discovery

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    We formulate a dynamic framework for an individual decision-maker within which discovery of previously unconsidered propositions is possible. Using a standard game-theoretic representation of the state space as a tree structure generated by the actions of agents (including acts of nature), we show how unawareness of propositions can be represented by a coarsening of the state space. Furthermore we develop a semantics rich enough to describe the individual's awareness that currently undiscovered propositions may be discovered in the future. Introducing probability concepts, we derive a representation of ambiguity in terms of multiple priors, reflecting implicit beliefs about undiscovered proposition, and derive conditions for the special case in which standard Bayesian learning may be applied to a subset of unambiguous propositions. Finally, we consider exploration strategies appropriate to the context of discovery, comparing and contrasting them with learning strategies appropriate to the context of justification, and sketch applications to scientific research and entrepreneurship.

    The Foreign Direct Investment Location Decision: A Contingency Model of the Foreign Direct Investment Location Decision-Making Process

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    Despite considerable prior research into foreign direct investment (FDI) location decisions, our understanding of the processes underlying such decisions is still limited. Findings from work based in the economics and behavioral theories of the multinational enterprise (MNE) both acknowledge that FDI is not a point-of-time decision but a gradual process that yields important changes over its duration. However, these competing traditions both fall short when attempting to portray the actual process by which FDI location decisions are made by managers in MNEs. This gap has been recently attributed to two interrelated limitations. Firstly, level of analysis concerns have artificially separated managerial decision-making processes from the organizational and environmental structures within which they are made. Secondly, because of the complexity inherent in the FDI location decision environment, the study of these decisions has not taken contextual factors into consideration. This study addresses three important questions in order to build our understanding of the FDI location decision-making processes: (1) What are the decision-making processes that lead to FDI location choice? (2) What is the impact of contextual variables on FDI location decision-making processes at different levels of analysis, and are there any patterns of variation in decision processes under different decision conditions? (3) What factors drive final FDI location choice, and can a useful framework or theory be developed that links FDI location decision-making processes and context to drivers of FDI location choice? In order to address level of analysis concerns, the study places the manager at the center of the FDI location decision in modeling and in research, a strategy recommended by an emerging stream of behavioral-focused international business research (Aharoni, 2010; Buckley et al., 2007; Devinney, 2011). By examining FDI location decisions from the perspective of the managers who implement them, it is possible to clarify the nature of processes that lead to FDI location choice, and identify the impact of different elements of decision maker, firm and environmental context on such processes. The conceptual framework builds on Aharoni’s (1966) pivotal research while incorporating findings from broader behavioral managerial decision models and international business research. The framework is based on the assumption that FDI location decision-making processes and final choice are contingent upon interactions between the environmental, firm and decision maker context under which the decision is made. The research was undertaken in three phases. Phase 1 included a literature review that covered research on the MNE, internationalization, and decision making. The findings of the review identified key aspects of FDI location decision context and led to the development of an initial contingency framework of strategic decision making. Phase 2 consisted of an exploratory case study of twenty four FDI location decisions. The initial contingency framework developed during the literature review was used during this stage to identify the relationship between decision-making processes and contextual variables at the case decisions. By drawing on results from the exploratory research, an initial conceptual model and a set of propositions were developed. In Phase 3, twenty case studies were theoretically sampled from a pool of MNEs of varying size and parent-country nationality within the knowledge-based industries. The data collection and analysis followed a process, event-driven approach to case study research involving the mapping of key sequences of events as well as within- and cross-case analysis. The results identify the key elements of the decision process that explain FDI location behavior and develop a framework that links them together and makes them sensible. The four key elements of the FDI location decision that comprise the framework include: (i) the process, (ii) the context, (iii) patterns, and (iv) location. Research findings show the FDI location decision process as comprising of five broad stages, the content of each driven by a dynamic and evolving interpretation of maximum subjective expected utility. Utility preferences are identified as the consequence of shifting and opaque goals, founded upon imperfect information, operating in an environment marked by uncertainty. Five variations in the overall orientation of utility at case decisions, classified in the study as ‘decision rules,’ proved to be more useful predictors of decision-making behavior than traditional notions of bounded rationality seeking rent extraction and profitability. Decision processes were found to vary in five prototypical patterns, according to clusters of contextual variables that together moderated the level of decision-maker autonomy, hierarchical centralization, rule formalization, commitment to strategy, and politicization of the decision. Patterns are described as FDI location decision-making models, and proposed as an initial step towards the development of a taxonomy of FDI location decision-making processes. Because of the dynamic and staged nature of the process, findings showed that factors that were important at one stage of the decision were not as important at the next. As such, the task of identifying universal drivers of FDI location was deemed an unfeasible one. In place of universal drivers, the initiating force of the investment, the purpose of investment and information sources and networks are identified as the key context-specific determinants of location in FDI decisions. Bounded by uncertainty, chance, the dynamics of the process and decision-maker effects, each of these aspects of the decision served to limit the possible consideration set for investment, and formed the value basis and measures from which to select the most attractive location choice. Despite the contextual differences in these drivers, however, the study revealed a strong pattern that showed that the importance of specific location considerations differed in much the same way across case decisions. During the first stage of case decisions primarily strategic aspects of locations were considered; during the second, considerations relating to the system; operational concerns in the third; implementation concerns in the fourth; and added value factors in the final choice. How each of these concerns was interpreted to reach final location choice differed according to the drivers mentioned previously, although the patterns were the same. This study develops a contingency framework for examining the FDI location decision-making processes of MNEs under different operating conditions. By identifying the four key components of the FDI location decision, their interrelationships and many sources of variance, this thesis shows that despite its complexity, the FDI location decision is amenable to useful conceptual structuring. From an academic standpoint, the framework answers Aharoni’s most recent call to action in ‘Behavioral Elements in Foreign Direct Investment’ (2010) by developing a replicable structure within which to think about incorporating managerial decision models and context into the theory of the MNE. These findings enhance understandings of decision making at MNEs, reconcile a number of inconsistencies between opposing perspectives of MNE theory, and thereby update extant theory so that it has greater relevance in today’s diverse international business environment. From a managerial standpoint, the thesis helps managers to recognize the opportunities and limitations posed by different aspects of decision context so that they are able to tailor their FDI location decision strategies to best suit their needs. Finally, from the perspective of policy markers, research findings provide great support for the use of investment attraction schemes through the use of targeted location marketing and investment incentives.

    The Foreign Direct Investment Location Decision: A Contingency Model of the Foreign Direct Investment Location Decision-Making Process

    Get PDF
    Despite considerable prior research into foreign direct investment (FDI) location decisions, our understanding of the processes underlying such decisions is still limited. Findings from work based in the economics and behavioral theories of the multinational enterprise (MNE) both acknowledge that FDI is not a point-of-time decision but a gradual process that yields important changes over its duration. However, these competing traditions both fall short when attempting to portray the actual process by which FDI location decisions are made by managers in MNEs. This gap has been recently attributed to two interrelated limitations. Firstly, level of analysis concerns have artificially separated managerial decision-making processes from the organizational and environmental structures within which they are made. Secondly, because of the complexity inherent in the FDI location decision environment, the study of these decisions has not taken contextual factors into consideration. This study addresses three important questions in order to build our understanding of the FDI location decision-making processes: (1) What are the decision-making processes that lead to FDI location choice? (2) What is the impact of contextual variables on FDI location decision-making processes at different levels of analysis, and are there any patterns of variation in decision processes under different decision conditions? (3) What factors drive final FDI location choice, and can a useful framework or theory be developed that links FDI location decision-making processes and context to drivers of FDI location choice? In order to address level of analysis concerns, the study places the manager at the center of the FDI location decision in modeling and in research, a strategy recommended by an emerging stream of behavioral-focused international business research (Aharoni, 2010; Buckley et al., 2007; Devinney, 2011). By examining FDI location decisions from the perspective of the managers who implement them, it is possible to clarify the nature of processes that lead to FDI location choice, and identify the impact of different elements of decision maker, firm and environmental context on such processes. The conceptual framework builds on Aharoni’s (1966) pivotal research while incorporating findings from broader behavioral managerial decision models and international business research. The framework is based on the assumption that FDI location decision-making processes and final choice are contingent upon interactions between the environmental, firm and decision maker context under which the decision is made. The research was undertaken in three phases. Phase 1 included a literature review that covered research on the MNE, internationalization, and decision making. The findings of the review identified key aspects of FDI location decision context and led to the development of an initial contingency framework of strategic decision making. Phase 2 consisted of an exploratory case study of twenty four FDI location decisions. The initial contingency framework developed during the literature review was used during this stage to identify the relationship between decision-making processes and contextual variables at the case decisions. By drawing on results from the exploratory research, an initial conceptual model and a set of propositions were developed. In Phase 3, twenty case studies were theoretically sampled from a pool of MNEs of varying size and parent-country nationality within the knowledge-based industries. The data collection and analysis followed a process, event-driven approach to case study research involving the mapping of key sequences of events as well as within- and cross-case analysis. The results identify the key elements of the decision process that explain FDI location behavior and develop a framework that links them together and makes them sensible. The four key elements of the FDI location decision that comprise the framework include: (i) the process, (ii) the context, (iii) patterns, and (iv) location. Research findings show the FDI location decision process as comprising of five broad stages, the content of each driven by a dynamic and evolving interpretation of maximum subjective expected utility. Utility preferences are identified as the consequence of shifting and opaque goals, founded upon imperfect information, operating in an environment marked by uncertainty. Five variations in the overall orientation of utility at case decisions, classified in the study as ‘decision rules,’ proved to be more useful predictors of decision-making behavior than traditional notions of bounded rationality seeking rent extraction and profitability. Decision processes were found to vary in five prototypical patterns, according to clusters of contextual variables that together moderated the level of decision-maker autonomy, hierarchical centralization, rule formalization, commitment to strategy, and politicization of the decision. Patterns are described as FDI location decision-making models, and proposed as an initial step towards the development of a taxonomy of FDI location decision-making processes. Because of the dynamic and staged nature of the process, findings showed that factors that were important at one stage of the decision were not as important at the next. As such, the task of identifying universal drivers of FDI location was deemed an unfeasible one. In place of universal drivers, the initiating force of the investment, the purpose of investment and information sources and networks are identified as the key context-specific determinants of location in FDI decisions. Bounded by uncertainty, chance, the dynamics of the process and decision-maker effects, each of these aspects of the decision served to limit the possible consideration set for investment, and formed the value basis and measures from which to select the most attractive location choice. Despite the contextual differences in these drivers, however, the study revealed a strong pattern that showed that the importance of specific location considerations differed in much the same way across case decisions. During the first stage of case decisions primarily strategic aspects of locations were considered; during the second, considerations relating to the system; operational concerns in the third; implementation concerns in the fourth; and added value factors in the final choice. How each of these concerns was interpreted to reach final location choice differed according to the drivers mentioned previously, although the patterns were the same. This study develops a contingency framework for examining the FDI location decision-making processes of MNEs under different operating conditions. By identifying the four key components of the FDI location decision, their interrelationships and many sources of variance, this thesis shows that despite its complexity, the FDI location decision is amenable to useful conceptual structuring. From an academic standpoint, the framework answers Aharoni’s most recent call to action in ‘Behavioral Elements in Foreign Direct Investment’ (2010) by developing a replicable structure within which to think about incorporating managerial decision models and context into the theory of the MNE. These findings enhance understandings of decision making at MNEs, reconcile a number of inconsistencies between opposing perspectives of MNE theory, and thereby update extant theory so that it has greater relevance in today’s diverse international business environment. From a managerial standpoint, the thesis helps managers to recognize the opportunities and limitations posed by different aspects of decision context so that they are able to tailor their FDI location decision strategies to best suit their needs. Finally, from the perspective of policy markers, research findings provide great support for the use of investment attraction schemes through the use of targeted location marketing and investment incentives.
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