Grid-Forming Converter Control Method to Improve DC-Link Stability in Inverter-Based AC Grids

As renewable energy sources with power-electronic interfaces become functionally and economically viable alternatives to bulk synchronous generators, it becomes vital to understand the behavior of these inverter-interfaced sources in ac grids devoid of any synchronous generation, i.e. inverter-based grids. In these types of grids, the inverters need to operate in parallel in grid-forming mode to regulate and synchronize their output voltage while also delivering the power required by the loads. It is common practice, therefore, to mimic the parallel operation control of the very synchronous generators that these inverter-based sources are meant to replace. This practice, however, is based on impractical assumptions and completely disregards the key differences between synchronous machines and power electronic inverters, as well as the dynamics of the dc source connected to the inverter. This dissertation aims to highlight the shortcomings of conventional controllers and derive an improved grid-forming inverter controller that is effective in parallel ac operation without sacrificing dc-link stability. This dissertation begins with a basis for understanding the control concepts used by grid-forming inverters in ac grids and exploring where existing ideas and methods are lacking in terms of efficient and stable inverter control. The knowledge gained from the literature survey is used to derive the requirements for a grid-forming control method that is appropriate for inverter-based ac grids. This is followed by a review and comparative analysis of the performance of five commonly used control techniques for grid-forming inverters, which reveal that nested loop controllers can have a destabilizing effect under changing grid conditions. This observation is further explored through an impedance-based stability analysis of single-loop and nested-loop controllers in grid-forming inverters, followed by a review of impedance-based analysis methods that can be used to assess the control design for grid-forming inverters. An improved grid-forming inverter controller is proposed with a demonstrated ability to achieve both dc-link and ac output stability with proportional power-sharing. This dissertation ends with a summary of the efforts and contributions as well as ideas for future applications of the proposed controller

A survey on modeling of microgrids - from fundamental physics to phasors and voltage sources

Microgrids have been identified as key components of modern electrical systems to facilitate the integration of renewable distributed generation units. Their analysis and controller design requires the development of advanced (typically model-based) techniques naturally posing an interesting challenge to the control community. Although there are widely accepted reduced order models to describe the dynamic behavior of microgrids, they are typically presented without details about the reduction procedure---hampering the understanding of the physical phenomena behind them. Preceded by an introduction to basic notions and definitions in power systems, the present survey reviews key characteristics and main components of a microgrid. We introduce the reader to the basic functionality of DC/AC inverters, as well as to standard operating modes and control schemes of inverter-interfaced power sources in microgrid applications. Based on this exposition and starting from fundamental physics, we present detailed dynamical models of the main microgrid components. Furthermore, we clearly state the underlying assumptions which lead to the standard reduced model with inverters represented by controllable voltage sources, as well as static network and load representations, hence, providing a complete modular model derivation of a three-phase inverter-based microgrid

On the Coupling of Power-Related and Inner Inverter Control Loops of Grid-Forming Converter Systems

In the last decade, different control concepts for the synchronisation of voltage-controlled power converters have been proposed in order to form converter-based power systems. The interoperability of these grid-forming power controls is often analysed based on reduced-order models covering only the slow controls or modes. In this article, the coupling of the outer, power-related and inner, inverter output-related control of multiple grid-forming power converter systems is analysed, based on a minimal working example. The elementary study cases each consist of a different grid-forming converter coupled with an external (and passive) grid. Here, the investigated stability problems are already manifested in the simplest possible setup. The analysis of these coupling effects is performed by modelling the system in impedance-based, state-space and phase portrait-based frameworks. In particular, small coupling impedances, like short transmission lines or small short circuit impedances, can be challenging for the controller stability of grid-forming converters while the inner controls can even enhance this issue. The impact of this phenomenon and the participating subsystems are identified in this work. Thus, recommendations concerning modelling techniques and their legitimate assumptions are given. Laboratory experiments validate the performed analysis by indicating a close correlation between analytical models and experimental results. CCB

Offshore Wind Farm Black Start Service Integration:Review and Outlook of Ongoing Research

A review of the ongoing research on black start (BS) service integrated with offshore wind farms (OWFs) is presented in this paper. The overall goal is to firstly gain a better understanding of the BS capabilities required by modern power systems. Subsequently, the challenges faced by OWFs as novel BS service providers as well as an outlook on the ongoing research which may provide solutions to these are presented. OWFs have the potential to be a fast and environmentally friendly technology to provide BS services for power system restoration and, therefore, to ensure resiliency after blackouts. As a power electronic-based system, OWFs can be equipped with a self-starter in the system in order to perform BS. The self-start unit could be a synchronous generator (SG) or a power electronic unit such as a grid-forming (GFM) converter. Preliminary BS studies performed in PSCAD/EMTDC are presented in a simplified OWF system via an SG as the self-start unit. Consequently, technical challenges during the BS procedure in an OWF benchmark system are outlined via theoretical discussions and simulations results. This is useful to understand the threats to power electronics during BS. Finally, the most relevant GFM strategies in the state-of-the-art literature are presented and their application to OWF BS is discussed

Decentralized control techniques applied to electric power distributed generation in microgrids

Distributed generation of electric energy has become part of the current electric power system. In this context a new scenario is arising in which small energy sources make up a new supply system: The microgrid.The most recent research projects show the technical difficulty of controlling the operation of microgrids, because they are complex systems in which several subsystems interact: energy sources, power electronic converters, energy storage systems, local, linear and non-linear loads and of course, the main grid. In next years, the electric grid will evolve from the current very centralized model toward a more distributed one. At the present time the generation, consumption and storage points are very far away one from each other. Under these circumstances, relatively frequent failures of the electric supply and important losses take place in the transport and distribution of energy, so that it can be stated that the efficiency of the supply system is low.In another context, electric companies are aiming at an electric grid, formed in a certain proportion by distributed generators, where the consumption points are near the generation points, avoiding high losses in the transmission lines and reducing the rate of shortcomings. Summing up, it is pursued the generation of small quantities of electric power by the users (this concept is called microgeneration in the origin), considering them not only as electric power consumers but also as responsible for the generation, becoming this way an integral part of the grid.In this context it is necessary to develop a new concept of flexible grid, i.e., with reconfiguration capability for operation with or without connection to the mains. The future microgrids should incorporate supervision and control systems that allow the efficient management of various kinds of energy generators, such as photovoltaic panels, energy storage systems, and local loads. Hence, we are dealing with intelligent flexible Microgrids capable of import and export power from/to the grid reconfiguring its operation modes and making decisions in real time.The researching lineas that have been introduced in this thesis are focused on the innovation in this kind of systems, the integration of several renewable energy sources, the quality of the power supply, security issues, and the system behavior during faults.In order to carry out some solutions related within these characteristics, the main goal of this thesis is the application on new control stretegies and a power management analysis of a microgrid. Thus, thanks to the emerging of renewable energy, is possible to give an alternative to the decoupling of generation units connected to the utility grid.Likewise, a work methodology has been analyzed and developed based on the modeling, control parameters design, and power management control starting from a single voltage source inverter to a number of interconnected DG units forming flexible Microgrids. In addition, all the mencioned topics have been studied giving new system performances, viability and safe functioning, thanks to the small-signal analysis and introducing control loop design algorithms, improving the import/export of electric power and operating both grid connected mode and an island.This thesis has presented an analysis, simulation and experimental results focusing on modeling, control, and analysis of DG units, giving contributions according to the following steps:- Control-oriented modeling based on active and reactive power analysis- Control synthesis based on enhanced droop control technique.- Small-signal stability study to give guidelines for properly adjusting the control system parameters according to the desired dynamic responseThis methodology has been extended to microgrids by using hierarchical control applied to droop-controlled line interactive UPSs showing that:- Droop-controlled inverters can be used in islanded microgrids.- By using multilevel control systems the microgrid can operate in both grid-connected and islanded mode, in a concept called flexible microgrid.The proposed hierarchical control required for flexible Microgrids consisted of different control levels, as following:- Primary control is based on the droop method allowing the connection of different AC sources without any intercommunication.- Secondary control avoids the voltage and frequency deviation produced by the primary control. Only low bandwidth communications are needed to perform this control level. A synchronization loop can be added in this level to transfer from islanding to grid connected modes.- Tertiary control allows the import/export of active and reactive power to the grid

Effects of energy storage systems grid code requirements on interface protection performances in low voltage networks

The ever-growing penetration of local generation in distribution networks and the large diffusion of energy storage systems (ESSs) foreseen in the near future are bound to affect the effectiveness of interface protection systems (IPSs), with negative impact on the safety of medium voltage (MV) and low voltage (LV) systems. With the scope of preserving the main network stability, international and national grid connection codes have been updated recently. Consequently, distributed generators (DGs) and storage units are increasingly called to provide stabilizing functions according to local voltage and frequency. This can be achieved by suitably controlling the electronic power converters interfacing small-scale generators and storage units to the network. The paper focuses on the regulating functions required to storage units by grid codes currently in force in the European area. Indeed, even if such regulating actions would enable local units in participating to network stability under normal steady-state operating conditions, it is shown through dynamic simulations that they may increase the risk of unintentional islanding occurrence. This means that dangerous operating conditions may arise in LV networks in case dispersed generators and storage systems are present, even if all the end-users are compliant with currently applied connection standards

Power Quality Improvement of Distributed Generation Integrated Network with Unified Power Quality Conditioner.

With the increased penetration of small scale renewable energy sources in the electrical distribution network, maintenance or improvement of power quality has become more critical than ever where the level of voltage and current harmonics or disturbances can vary widely. For this reason, Custom Power Devices (CPDs) such as the Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) can be the most appropriate solution for enhancing the dynamic performance of the distribution network, where accurate prior knowledge may not be available. Therefore, the main objective of the present research is to investigate the (i) placement (ii) integration (iii) capacity enhancement and (iv) real time control of the Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) to improve the power quality (PQ) of a distributed generation (DG) network connected to the grid or microgrid