AI Solutions for MDS: Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Misuse Detection and Localisation in Telecommunication Environments

This report considers the application of Articial Intelligence (AI) techniques to the problem of misuse detection and misuse localisation within telecommunications environments. A broad survey of techniques is provided, that covers inter alia rule based systems, model-based systems, case based reasoning, pattern matching, clustering and feature extraction, articial neural networks, genetic algorithms, arti cial immune systems, agent based systems, data mining and a variety of hybrid approaches. The report then considers the central issue of event correlation, that is at the heart of many misuse detection and localisation systems. The notion of being able to infer misuse by the correlation of individual temporally distributed events within a multiple data stream environment is explored, and a range of techniques, covering model based approaches, `programmed' AI and machine learning paradigms. It is found that, in general, correlation is best achieved via rule based approaches, but that these suffer from a number of drawbacks, such as the difculty of developing and maintaining an appropriate knowledge base, and the lack of ability to generalise from known misuses to new unseen misuses. Two distinct approaches are evident. One attempts to encode knowledge of known misuses, typically within rules, and use this to screen events. This approach cannot generally detect misuses for which it has not been programmed, i.e. it is prone to issuing false negatives. The other attempts to `learn' the features of event patterns that constitute normal behaviour, and, by observing patterns that do not match expected behaviour, detect when a misuse has occurred. This approach is prone to issuing false positives, i.e. inferring misuse from innocent patterns of behaviour that the system was not trained to recognise. Contemporary approaches are seen to favour hybridisation, often combining detection or localisation mechanisms for both abnormal and normal behaviour, the former to capture known cases of misuse, the latter to capture unknown cases. In some systems, these mechanisms even work together to update each other to increase detection rates and lower false positive rates. It is concluded that hybridisation offers the most promising future direction, but that a rule or state based component is likely to remain, being the most natural approach to the correlation of complex events. The challenge, then, is to mitigate the weaknesses of canonical programmed systems such that learning, generalisation and adaptation are more readily facilitated

Resilient event collection in SIEM systems

Tese de mestrado em Segurança Informática, apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa, através da Faculdade de Ciências, 2013A importância da Segurança da Informação tem crescido rapidamente nos últimos anos, com uma maior consciencialização da sociedade civil e das empresas para o problema. As notícias recorrentes de ataques direcionados e roubo de informação em larga escala que resultam em grandes prejuízos financeiros, por vezes tendo como consequência o encerramento das organizações envolvidas, justificam o investimento em mecanismos de proteção da informação. No âmago da capacidade para monitorização da segurança em tempo-real está o Security Operations Center (SOC), o conjunto de pessoas, processos e sistemas onde se concentram as capacidades de análise e resposta a incidentes de Segurança da Informação. A base tecnológica do SOC é construída sobre o sistema de Gestão de Informação e Eventos de Segurança, vulgo SIEM. Este sistema permite recolher eventos de segurança de diversas fontes e encontrar padrões de ataque analisando relações entre eles. No entanto, tal como acontece com todos os sistemas informáticos, um atacante que tenha conhecimento da sua existência irá procurar ultrapassar as proteções implementadas, prevenindo que a equipa do SOC seja alertada para o ataque em curso. A relevância dos sistemas SIEM tem vindo a aumentar no contexto da maior importância atribuída a questões de segurança da informação. Considerando um número cada vez mais elevado de eventos e as múltiplas origens onde estes são gerados, as equipas de monitorização estão cada vez mais dependentes de consolas únicas onde a informação é centralizada e processada. Como consequência existe também uma maior dependência dos sistemas centrais, tornando-os pontos únicos de falha. Os sistemas SIEM são intrinsecamente complexos devido à necessidade de recolha de eventos de segurança a partir de fontes com tecnologias muito diversas, com localizações dispersas. O facto de desempenharem diversas funções aumenta esta complexidade, necessitando de módulos para recolha, consolidação, processamento e armazenamento de eventos. Para além destes módulos, que podem ou não traduzir-se em componentes fisicamente distintos, os sistemas SIEM estão fortemente dependentes dos sensores colocados junto às fontes de eventos, bem como da rede de comunicações que permite o envio desses eventos entre os diversos componentes, até à consola central. A inexistência de investigação diretamente focada no aumento da resiliência dos sistemas SIEM resulta na implementação de soluções pouco adaptadas aos riscos e desafios associados a infraestruturas de segurança. Estando maioritariamente focada na proteção de segurança ao nível da rede, muitos dos desenvolvimentos recentes centram-se na capacidade de identificar padrões de tráfego maliciosos. Esta abordagem reflete-se em publicações direcionadas aos sistemas de detecção e prevenção de intrusões (IDS/IPS), com menos enfoque na implementação resiliente de sistemas SIEM. A nossa percepção, corroborada por uma pesquisa alargada de trabalhos desenvolvidos nesta área, aponta para um elevado número de implementações padrão, assumindo cenários teóricos e sem tomar em linha de conta o efeito de ataques contra o próprio sistema SIEM. Neste trabalho começamos por efetuar uma análise às falhas de segurança que podem afectar o desempenho do processo de recolha de eventos de segurança, incluindo falhas acidentais mas também possíveis ataques deliberados ao sistema SIEM que possibilitem a uma entidade maliciosa ultrapassar os mecanismos de segurança implementados. Com base nessa análise endereçamos os problemas de fiabilidade que afetam qualquer sistema informático, apontando soluções que permitam lidar com falhas acidentais e, dessa forma, aumentar a disponibilidade do sistema. Ao reduzir a probabilidade de falhas que impeçam a recolha de eventos de segurança, estamos a contribuir diretamente para diminuir a janela de oportunidade disponível para que ataques à infraestrutura não sejam detectados. Focando o risco de falhas maliciosas, propomos soluções que impeçam os atacantes de explorar com sucesso vulnerabilidades no processo de recolha de eventos de segurança. Este processo envolve sistemas heterogéneos, desde a fonte dos eventos até à consola central, passando pela rede de comunicação responsável por interligar toda a infraestrutura. Consideramos fundamental atingir um nível de robustez elevado, mesmo na presença de infraestrutura parcialmente comprometida. O principal objectivo deste trabalho passa por definir um método sistemático de recolha e correlação resiliente de eventos de segurança num sistema SIEM, mesmo na presença de componentes maliciosos sob controlo de atacantes. Para atingir este objectivo centramo-nos na robustez das regras de correlação, desde a sua concepção e desenho até à implementação final no sistema SIEM. Os sistemas SIEM contêm um conjunto alargado de regras padrão que, como demonstramos, partem de premissas demasiado optimistas relativamente ao processo de recolha de eventos. Descrevemos, ao longo do trabalho, de que forma estas regras padrão podem ser melhoradas para lidar com as diversas possibilidades de falhas e ataques maliciosos, aumentando desta forma a resiliência total do sistema SIEM e o nível de confiança que a equipa do SOC pode depositar nesta ferramenta essencial. Utilizando casos de uso reais, demonstramos a metodologia proposta para aumentar a resiliência das regras de correlação. Tendo como ponto de partida uma regra base, aplicamos passo a passo a metodologia, detalhando e avaliando cada evolução da regra, até ser atingido um nível de robustez elevado. Com o propósito de sistematizar a metodologia proposta para o aumento de qualidade das regras de correlação, desenvolvemos uma aplicação denominada AutoRule. Esta ferramenta recebe como entrada uma ou mais regras de correlação e efetua uma análise automática, detectando possíveis lacunas e sugerindo correções. Apesar de não suprir a necessidade de análise com base na experiência prática na definição de regras de correlação, a aplicação AutoRule permite à equipa de configuração do sistema SIEM atuar de forma precisa e direcionada, corrigindo as regras de correlação e, dessa forma, tornando-as mais resilientes. Finalmente, para demonstrar e medir a eficácia da nossa proposta, foi posta em prática a metodologia através de uma implementação em cenário real, recorrendo ao sistema SIEM utilizado para monitorizar os eventos de segurança na rede corporativa da EDP – Energias de Portugal, S.A. Tratando-se de um grupo multinacional com mais de 12000 colaboradores ativos, a rede informática monitorizada por este sistema SIEM fornece a possibilidade de analisar em larga escala os efeitos das melhorias propostas. A metodologia proposta para aumentar a resiliência das regras de correlação traduziu-se num acréscimo da eficácia das mesmas, resultando num sistema mais fiável. A consequência mais direta é uma melhoria operacional do SOC, que passa a dispor de informação mais precisa e mais adequada ao seu contexto de operação. Para além da proposta teórica, a implementação permitiu também validar a operação num cenário real da aplicação AutoRule, desenvolvida para automatizar a análise das regras de correlação. As melhorias introduzidas nas regras de correlação desenvolvidas no contexto da operação do SOC EDP, seguindo os passos da metodologia, foram sendo testadas com recurso à aplicação. Os resultados demonstram que a eficácia medida das regras correspondeu também a um melhor resultado obtido através da análise automática, existindo por isso motivos para confiar nesta análise. A aplicação AutoRule possibilitou ainda uma comparação entre as regras predefinidas, instaladas de forma automática com a solução ArcSight, e as regras que seguiram o processo de melhoria preconizado pela metodologia proposta. As avaliações finais que fazemos da implementação num cenário real são francamente positivas, ratificando a nossa proposta teórica e conferindo-lhe um elevado grau de confiança quanto à possibilidade de aplicação em larga escala, de forma independente da tecnologia de sistema SIEM escolhida.Information Security has become a relevant subject in recent years, with greater awareness to the topic from major companies and general public. The frequent news regarding targeted attacks and large-scale information thefts resulting in major financial losses, sometimes even resulting in company bankruptcy, justify investments in protection mechanisms. At the heart of real-time security monitoring is the Security Information and Event Management system, commonly known as SIEM. These systems allow for security event collection and pattern discovery, by analyzing relationships between those events in real-time. However, as with all computer systems, an attacker who is aware of its existence will seek to overcome the protection mechanisms in place, preventing the security experts from being alerted to the ongoing attacks. We present an analysis of possible attacks to a SIEM system and seek solutions to prevent successful exploitation of those attacks, even if the attackers are able to take control over part of the infrastructure. Instead of suggesting massive changes throughout the multiple systems and network components, we propose an approach based on the capabilities of the SIEM system to collect and correlate security events from multiple sources. We advocate that it is possible to detect faults, malicious or accidental, though real time analysis of the collected events using carefully crafted and resilient correlation rules. Our goal is to define a systematic method to resiliently collect and correlate security events in a SIEM system, despite the presence of components already under the control of attackers. The effectiveness of the proposed methodology is evaluated in a real production environment, simulating attacks and accidental failures and observing their effects in the capability of the SIEM system to identify abnormal behavior. We also develop and demonstrate an application capable of automatically analyzing correlation rules, identifying vulnerabilities and proposing improvements to increase heir overall resilience

Anomaly detection using pattern-of-life visual metaphors

Complex dependencies exist across the technology estate, users and purposes of machines. This can make it difficult to efficiently detect attacks. Visualization to date is mainly used to communicate patterns of raw logs, or to visualize the output of detection systems. In this paper we explore a novel approach to presenting cybersecurity-related information to analysts. Specifically, we investigate the feasibility of using visualizations to make analysts become anomaly detectors using Pattern-of-Life Visual Metaphors. Unlike glyph metaphors, the visualizations themselves (rather than any single visual variable on screen) transform complex systems into simpler ones using different mapping strategies. We postulate that such mapping strategies can yield new, meaningful ways to showing anomalies in a manner that can be easily identified by analysts. We present a classification system to describe machine and human activities on a host machine, a strategy to map machine dependencies and activities to a metaphor. We then present two examples, each with three attack scenarios, running data generated from attacks that affect confidentiality, integrity and availability of machines. Finally, we present three in-depth use-case studies to assess feasibility (i.e. can this general approach be used to detect anomalies in systems?), usability and detection abilities of our approach. Our findings suggest that our general approach is easy to use to detect anomalies in complex systems, but the type of metaphor has an impact on user's ability to detect anomalies. Similar to other anomaly-detection techniques, false positives do exist in our general approach as well. Future work will need to investigate optimal mapping strategies, other metaphors, and examine how our approach compares to and can complement existing techniques

Cyber indicators of compromise: a domain ontology for security information and event management

It has been said that cyber attackers are attacking at wire speed (very fast), while cyber defenders are defending at human speed (very slow). Researchers have been working to improve this asymmetry by automating a greater portion of what has traditionally been very labor-intensive work. This work is involved in both the monitoring of live system events (to detect attacks), and the review of historical system events (to investigate attacks). One technology that is helping to automate this work is Security Information and Event Management (SIEM). In short, SIEM technology works by aggregating log information, and then sifting through this information looking for event correlations that are highly indicative of attack activity. For example: Administrator successful local logon and (concurrently) Administrator successful remote logon. Such correlations are sometimes referred to as indicators of compromise (IOCs). Though IOCs for network-based data (i.e., packet headers and payload) are fairly mature (e.g., Snort's large rule-base), the field of end-device IOCs is still evolving and lacks any well-defined go-to standard accepted by all. This report addresses ontological issues pertaining to end-device IOCs development, including what they are, how they are defined, and what dominant early standards already exist.http://archive.org/details/cyberindicatorso1094553041Lieutenant, United States NavyApproved for public release; distribution is unlimited

Mobile Firewall System For Distributed Denial Of Service Defense In Internet Of Things Networks

Internet of Things (IoT) has seen unprecedented growth in the consumer space over the past ten years. The majority of IoT device manufacturers do not, however, build their products with cybersecurity in mind. The goal of the mobile firewall system is to move mitigation of network-diffused attacks closer to their source. Attack detection and mitigation is enforced using a machine that physically traverses the area. This machine uses a suite of security tools to protect the network. Our system provides advantages over current network attack mitigation techniques. Mobile firewalls can be deployed when there is no access to the network gateway or when no gateway exists, such as in IoT mesh networks. The focus of this thesis is to refine an explicit implementation for the mobile firewall system and evaluate its effectiveness. Evaluation of the mobile firewall system is analyzed using three simulated distributed denial of service case studies. Mobility is shown to be a great benefit when defending against physically distant attackers – the system takes no more than 131 seconds to fully nullify a worst-case attack

Risk Monitoring and Intrusion Detection for Industrial Control Systems

Cyber-attacks on critical infrastructure such as electricity, gas, and water distribution, or power plants, are more and more considered to be a relevant and realistic threat to the European society. Whereas mature solutions like anti-malware applications, intrusion detection systems (IDS) and even intrusion prevention or self-healing systems have been designed for classic computer systems, these techniques have only been partially adapted to the world of Industrial Control Systems (ICS). As a consequence, organisations and nations fall back upon risk management to understand the risks that they are facing. Today's trend is to combine risk management with real-time monitoring to enable prompt reactions in case of attacks. This thesis aims at providing techniques that assist security managers in migrating from a static risk analysis to a real-time and dynamic risk monitoring platform. Risk monitoring encompasses three steps, each being addressed in detail in this thesis: the collection of risk-related information, the reporting of security events, and finally the inclusion of this real-time information into a risk analysis. The first step consists in designing agents that detect incidents in the system. In this thesis, an intrusion detection system is developed to this end, which focuses on an advanced persistent threat (APT) that particularly targets critical infrastructures. The second step copes with the translation of the obtained technical information in more abstract notions of risk, which can then be used in the context of a risk analysis. In the final step, the information collected from the various sources is correlated so as to obtain the risk faced by the entire system. Since industrial environments are characterised by many interdependencies, a dependency model is elaborated which takes dependencies into account when the risk is estimated

Detection and Mitigation of Steganographic Malware

A new attack trend concerns the use of some form of steganography and information hiding to make malware stealthier and able to elude many standard security mechanisms. Therefore, this Thesis addresses the detection and the mitigation of this class of threats. In particular, it considers malware implementing covert communications within network traffic or cloaking malicious payloads within digital images. The first research contribution of this Thesis is in the detection of network covert channels. Unfortunately, the literature on the topic lacks of real traffic traces or attack samples to perform precise tests or security assessments. Thus, a propaedeutic research activity has been devoted to develop two ad-hoc tools. The first allows to create covert channels targeting the IPv6 protocol by eavesdropping flows, whereas the second allows to embed secret data within arbitrary traffic traces that can be replayed to perform investigations in realistic conditions. This Thesis then starts with a security assessment concerning the impact of hidden network communications in production-quality scenarios. Results have been obtained by considering channels cloaking data in the most popular protocols (e.g., TLS, IPv4/v6, and ICMPv4/v6) and showcased that de-facto standard intrusion detection systems and firewalls (i.e., Snort, Suricata, and Zeek) are unable to spot this class of hazards. Since malware can conceal information (e.g., commands and configuration files) in almost every protocol, traffic feature or network element, configuring or adapting pre-existent security solutions could be not straightforward. Moreover, inspecting multiple protocols, fields or conversations at the same time could lead to performance issues. Thus, a major effort has been devoted to develop a suite based on the extended Berkeley Packet Filter (eBPF) to gain visibility over different network protocols/components and to efficiently collect various performance indicators or statistics by using a unique technology. This part of research allowed to spot the presence of network covert channels targeting the header of the IPv6 protocol or the inter-packet time of generic network conversations. In addition, the approach based on eBPF turned out to be very flexible and also allowed to reveal hidden data transfers between two processes co-located within the same host. Another important contribution of this part of the Thesis concerns the deployment of the suite in realistic scenarios and its comparison with other similar tools. Specifically, a thorough performance evaluation demonstrated that eBPF can be used to inspect traffic and reveal the presence of covert communications also when in the presence of high loads, e.g., it can sustain rates up to 3 Gbit/s with commodity hardware. To further address the problem of revealing network covert channels in realistic environments, this Thesis also investigates malware targeting traffic generated by Internet of Things devices. In this case, an incremental ensemble of autoencoders has been considered to face the ''unknown'' location of the hidden data generated by a threat covertly exchanging commands towards a remote attacker. The second research contribution of this Thesis is in the detection of malicious payloads hidden within digital images. In fact, the majority of real-world malware exploits hiding methods based on Least Significant Bit steganography and some of its variants, such as the Invoke-PSImage mechanism. Therefore, a relevant amount of research has been done to detect the presence of hidden data and classify the payload (e.g., malicious PowerShell scripts or PHP fragments). To this aim, mechanisms leveraging Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) proved to be flexible and effective since they can learn by combining raw low-level data and can be updated or retrained to consider unseen payloads or images with different features. To take into account realistic threat models, this Thesis studies malware targeting different types of images (i.e., favicons and icons) and various payloads (e.g., URLs and Ethereum addresses, as well as webshells). Obtained results showcased that DNNs can be considered a valid tool for spotting the presence of hidden contents since their detection accuracy is always above 90% also when facing ''elusion'' mechanisms such as basic obfuscation techniques or alternative encoding schemes. Lastly, when detection or classification are not possible (e.g., due to resource constraints), approaches enforcing ''sanitization'' can be applied. Thus, this Thesis also considers autoencoders able to disrupt hidden malicious contents without degrading the quality of the image

Defacement Detection with Passive Adversaries

A novel approach to defacement detection is proposed in this paper, addressing explicitly the possible presence of a passive adversary. Defacement detection is an important security measure for Web Sites and Applications, aimed at avoiding unwanted modifications that would result in significant reputational damage. As in many other anomaly detection contexts, the algorithm used to identify possible defacements is obtained via an Adversarial Machine Learning process. We consider an exploratory setting, where the adversary can observe the detector’s alarm-generating behaviour, with the purpose of devising and injecting defacements that will pass undetected. It is then necessary to make to learning process unpredictable, so that the adversary will be unable to replicate it and predict the classifier’s behaviour. We achieve this goal by introducing a secret key—a key that our adversary does not know. The key will influence the learning process in a number of different ways, that are precisely defined in this paper. This includes the subset of examples and features that are actually used, the time of learning and testing, as well as the learning algorithm’s hyper-parameters. This learning methodology is successfully applied in this context, by using the system with both real and artificially modified Web sites. A year-long experimentation is also described, referred to the monitoring of the new Web Site of a major manufacturing company

CLASSIFYING AND RESPONDING TO NETWORK INTRUSIONS

Intrusion detection systems (IDS) have been widely adopted within the IT community, as passive monitoring tools that report security related problems to system administrators. However, the increasing number and evolving complexity of attacks, along with the growth and complexity of networking infrastructures, has led to overwhelming numbers of IDS alerts, which allow significantly smaller timeframe for a human to respond. The need for automated response is therefore very much evident. However, the adoption of such approaches has been constrained by practical limitations and administrators' consequent mistrust of systems' abilities to issue appropriate responses. The thesis presents a thorough analysis of the problem of intrusions, and identifies false alarms as the main obstacle to the adoption of automated response. A critical examination of existing automated response systems is provided, along with a discussion of why a new solution is needed. The thesis determines that, while the detection capabilities remain imperfect, the problem of false alarms cannot be eliminated. Automated response technology must take this into account, and instead focus upon avoiding the disruption of legitimate users and services in such scenarios. The overall aim of the research has therefore been to enhance the automated response process, by considering the context of an attack, and investigate and evaluate a means of making intelligent response decisions. The realisation of this objective has included the formulation of a response-oriented taxonomy of intrusions, which is used as a basis to systematically study intrusions and understand the threats detected by an IDS. From this foundation, a novel Flexible Automated and Intelligent Responder (FAIR) architecture has been designed, as the basis from which flexible and escalating levels of response are offered, according to the context of an attack. The thesis describes the design and operation of the architecture, focusing upon the contextual factors influencing the response process, and the way they are measured and assessed to formulate response decisions. The architecture is underpinned by the use of response policies which provide a means to reflect the changing needs and characteristics of organisations. The main concepts of the new architecture were validated via a proof-of-concept prototype system. A series of test scenarios were used to demonstrate how the context of an attack can influence the response decisions, and how the response policies can be customised and used to enable intelligent decisions. This helped to prove that the concept of flexible automated response is indeed viable, and that the research has provided a suitable contribution to knowledge in this important domain