'Sustainability' of what, for whom? Unfolding China's sustainability transitions and green modernisation

Today, we face two widespread crises: the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change. Tackling these twin threats requires extensive cooperation and system change. The crisis is also a catalyst for reforms toward more 'sustainable' futures. However, most discussion of transiting to a more sustainable future is theoretical or niche-based. Moreover, the consensus has not been reached on many fundamental transition questions such as what is the future after transition, how we transit, and is the proposed transition desirable for everyone. Many studies also end up by underscoring the need for collective actions to tackle complex, dynamic and diverse socio-ecological challenges in sustainability transition. To fill the gaps outlined above, this research aims to focus on China, the pioneer of practising sustainability transition and uncover the structural changes during sustainability transitions. This research asked 'What sustainability is China building? And whom do China's sustainability transitions benefit?' To answer these questions, this thesis by compilation followed the grounded theory to examine China's sustainability from international-national scale, regional scale to local scale. At the international-national scale, this research assesses the integration and interplay of sustainability transitions in China's national development strategies and discusses how do sustainability transitions support China's global ambitions. On an international platform, China's eco-development and eco-civilisation logics help China take more and increasingly prominent roles in UN sustainability councils and other global environmental and developmental organisations. At the national level, China values natural resources based on its nation-state and party's interests. By over-emphasising a shared bright future or great mission, the task of solving individual problems and concerns of specific groups is overlooked. At a regional scale, this research examines China's adjustments and changes in policy in coordinating regional development and transitions. In China, radical policy reform triggered by external perturbations and shocks is competing with incremental policy change through policy-oriented learning. An "double-mountain" theory has been proposed by Xi Jinping since 2005 and has become the dominant strategy instructing China's sustainable development plans. Empirical research was undertaken at the local scale discovering the outcomes and effects of sustainability transitions on local people. China's logic of sustainability transitions has unified complicated relations and interactions among different groups in a society under a single set of all-encompassing terms and principles. By overlooking social differentiation, the Chinese Communist Party can avoid solving tricky problems. In China, sustainability transitions are integral to nation-state stability and party legitimacy rather than a sustainable development of a broad community as envisioned by many other sustainability agendas, such as the sustainable development goals. China's case reminds us that the broader the concepts of sustainability transitions are, the more space powerful stakeholders have to manipulate development to favour their demands. However, there do not have to be negative consequences from sustainable development transitions. Politicisation and pluralisation of sustainability transitions could diminish perverse outcomes and unlock positive social outcomes. The key to sustainable development is not co-developing humans and nature because this has happened for millions of years. To live more sustainably, we need to first figure out how humans can live longer, better and happier without depriving everyone's inalienable rights to own life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Sustainability transitions should be human-centred and the management of competing values among actors in transitions should be decided through a just and transparent approach