Reflecting on Performance Feedback: The Effect of Counterfactual Thinking on Subsequent Leader Performance

Performance feedback is an integral aspect of facilitating employee learning. Despite its importance, research suggests that when that feedback conveys a performance discrepancy, subsequent performance does not improve. Researchers have advanced reflection as a strategy for increasing feedback effectiveness and have established its value for learning and performance improvement. However, these studies have not accounted for the effects of specific types of reflection on performance. To this point, the current research examines the role of one form of reflection, counterfactual thinking, for learning after performance discrepancies. I explored boundary conditions that might influence self-focused upward counterfactual thinking—a form of reflection particularly important for learning and performance improvement—and examined whether and when such thinking influences the relationship between a baseline performance discrepancy and subsequent performance. To investigate these issues, I designed, developed, and validated a computer simulated leadership skills task and administered it to graduate and undergraduate students (N= 169) in a web-based research setting. I tested the proposed relationships using conditional process analysis. The results of this study demonstrated that when individuals encounter performance discrepancies they might attempt to reconcile such through self-focused upward counterfactual thinking. This research represents a step toward an improved understanding of reflection, performance discrepancy feedback processing, and subsequent performance effects

Applied Cyberpsychology: Military and Defence Applications

Virtual environments are synthetic computer simulations that represent activities at a high degree of realism. Virtual environments have numerous applications for military and defence purposes, ranging from allowing personnel to experience realistic, high-pressure situations with a sense of presence, but in the absence of real world risk, to modelling threats to national and international infrastructure to improve resilience. Emerging opportunities also exist for communication and intelligence gathering, exploring on-line social cognition and group behaviour, and understanding how to mitigate the negative effects of combat-related stress disorders, for example. In this chapter we introduce psychological theory and contemporary cyberpsychology research, and offer an albeit very brief introduction to the rapidly developing application of technology to better understand human behaviour and facilitate performance for military and defence purposes

Applied Cyberpsychology: Military and Defence Applications

Virtual environments are synthetic computer simulations that represent activities at a high degree of realism. Virtual environments have numerous applications for military and defence purposes, ranging from allowing personnel to experience realistic, high-pressure situations with a sense of presence, but in the absence of real world risk, to modelling threats to national and international infrastructure to improve resilience. Emerging opportunities also exist for communication and intelligence gathering, exploring on-line social cognition and group behaviour, and understanding how to mitigate the negative effects of combat-related stress disorders, for example. In this chapter we introduce psychological theory and contemporary cyberpsychology research, and offer an albeit very brief introduction to the rapidly developing application of technology to better understand human behaviour and facilitate performance for military and defence purposes

Attention and Social Cognition in Virtual Reality:The effect of engagement mode and character eye-gaze

Technical developments in virtual humans are manifest in modern character design. Specifically, eye gaze offers a significant aspect of such design. There is need to consider the contribution of participant control of engagement. In the current study, we manipulated participants’ engagement with an interactive virtual reality narrative called Coffee without Words. Participants sat over coffee opposite a character in a virtual café, where they waited for their bus to be repaired. We manipulated character eye-contact with the participant. For half the participants in each condition, the character made no eye-contact for the duration of the story. For the other half, the character responded to participant eye-gaze by making and holding eye contact in return. To explore how participant engagement interacted with this manipulation, half the participants in each condition were instructed to appraise their experience as an artefact (i.e., drawing attention to technical features), while the other half were introduced to the fictional character, the narrative, and the setting as though they were real. This study allowed us to explore the contributions of character features (interactivity through eye-gaze) and cognition (attention/engagement) to the participants’ perception of realism, feelings of presence, time duration, and the extent to which they engaged with the character and represented their mental states (Theory of Mind). Importantly it does so using a highly controlled yet ecologically valid virtual experience

Virtual Simulation in Leadership Development Training;the Impact of Learning Styles and Conflict Management Tactics on Adult Learner Performance

Adult learners can develop leadership skills and competencies such as conflict management and negotiation skills. Virtual simulations are among the emerging new technologies available to adult educators and trainers to help adults develop various leadership competencies. This study explored the impact of conflict management tactics as well as learning styles on the efficacy of virtual leadership development training.In this quantitative study, participants (n=349) completed electronic versions of both the Power and Influence Tactics Scale (POINTS) and the Kolb Learning Styles Instrument (KLSI). Results of participant scores for both instruments were compared with scores from a virtual leadership simulation. Performance within a virtual leadership simulation was not found to be significantly impacted by diverse learning styles, indicating that virtual simulations can be effective for adult learners with any learning style. Statistically significant correlations were found between all seven conflict management tactics and key virtual leadership simulation scores, indicating that virtual leadership simulations can be effective tools for practicing multiple conflict management tactics. Experiential learning techniques are becoming commonplace and the use of technology is growing within the field of adult and leadership education. This study elucidates the effectiveness of new technologies such as virtual simulations as tools for leadership development. This study contributes to leadership education best practices by exploring the effectiveness of virtual simulations as a method for training leaders that will allow educators to incorporate emerging best practices into their repertoire of methodologie

Virtual Simulation in Leadership Development Training;the Impact of Learning Styles and Conflict Management Tactics on Adult Learner Performance

Adult learners can develop leadership skills and competencies such as conflict management and negotiation skills. Virtual simulations are among the emerging new technologies available to adult educators and trainers to help adults develop various leadership competencies. This study explored the impact of conflict management tactics as well as learning styles on the efficacy of virtual leadership development training.In this quantitative study, participants (n=349) completed electronic versions of both the Power and Influence Tactics Scale (POINTS) and the Kolb Learning Styles Instrument (KLSI). Results of participant scores for both instruments were compared with scores from a virtual leadership simulation. Performance within a virtual leadership simulation was not found to be significantly impacted by diverse learning styles, indicating that virtual simulations can be effective for adult learners with any learning style. Statistically significant correlations were found between all seven conflict management tactics and key virtual leadership simulation scores, indicating that virtual leadership simulations can be effective tools for practicing multiple conflict management tactics. Experiential learning techniques are becoming commonplace and the use of technology is growing within the field of adult and leadership education. This study elucidates the effectiveness of new technologies such as virtual simulations as tools for leadership development. This study contributes to leadership education best practices by exploring the effectiveness of virtual simulations as a method for training leaders that will allow educators to incorporate emerging best practices into their repertoire of methodologie

Measuring the effectiveness of virtual training : a systematic review

The amount of research on virtual reality learning tools increases with time. Despite the diverse environments and theoretical foundations, enough data have been accumulated in recent years to provide a systematic review of the methods used. We pose ten questions concerning the methodological aspects of these studies. We performed a search in three databases according to the PRISMA guidelines and evaluated several characteristics, with particular emphasis on researchers' methodological decisions. We found an increase over time in the number of studies on the effectiveness of VR-based learning. We also identified shortcomings related to how the duration and number of training sessions are reported. We believe that these two factors could affect the effectiveness of VR-based training. Furthermore, when using the Kirkpatrick model, a significant imbalance can be observed in favor of outcomes from the ‘Reaction’ and ‘Learning’ levels compared to the ‘Behavior’ and ‘Results’ levels. The last of these was not used in any of the 330 reviewed studies. These results highlight the importance of research on the effectiveness of VR training. Taking into account the identified methodological shortcomings will allow for more significant research on this topic in the future

Diplomacy as Pedagogy, Pedagogy as Diplomacy: Diplomatic Simulations, Constructivism, and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda

Diplomatic simulations, or simulations of international or regional organizations (i.e. Model United Nations), present great opportunities that extend beyond the pedagogical value suggested by limited literature. Operationalizing constructivism as both a pedagogical and international relations theory illuminates the implications of diplomatic simulations on participants, diplomacy, and multidisciplinary research. To accomplish this, this exploratory study first performs a thorough literature review to synthesize relevant works. An exploratory content analysis is then employed on documents in a Model United Nations simulation to investigate its utility in accomplishing the United Nations’ 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, particularly Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4: Quality Education. Findings suggest that while diplomatic simulations develop skills and knowledge of international relations, they also impact actual diplomacy by disrupting ethnocentrism, exporting political agents, and norm diffusion. Diplomatic simulations can also be used as nontraditional data sources and research methods, providing a unique solution to resource-constrained research endeavors

SANDBOX CONTRACTING: AN EVALUATION OF GAMIFIED VS. TRADITIONAL CONTRACTING TRAINING METHODS AT THE USAF ENLISTED CONTRACTING TECHNICAL SCHOOL

This thesis involved an evaluation of gamified versus current (traditional) training methods employed by the instructors and faculty at the Air Force’s 344th Training Squadron (344 TRS) at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and by the professors at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey, California. For our project, we designed and developed a first-person shooter (FPS) video game, titled Sandbox Contracting, that teaches the player basic contracting skills. Over the course of six weeks, we utilized this FPS video game to conduct an experiment in which a control group received the current (traditional) training methods employed by 344 TRS and NPS and a treatment group received the gamified version of the training. We assessed each student’s learning as well as their reaction to the assigned learning modality (traditional versus gaming) using post-training evaluation surveys. Traditional training methods outperformed gamified methods in most cases, but not all. We found that game design and mechanics impacted the student’s reactions and ultimately, the success of using gamified methods for learning. Additionally, the results demonstrated a genuine interest in using games for learning among the Air Force contracting students, given the right game design and mechanics. Lastly, we offer suggestions for areas in which further research should be conducted in the gamified versus traditional training arena.Outstanding ThesisCaptain, United States Air ForceCaptain, United States Air ForceCaptain, United States Air ForceApproved for public release. Distribution is unlimited