Snow monitoring using microwave radars

Remote sensing has proven its usefulness in various applications. For mapping, land-use classification and forest monitoring optical satellite and airborne images are used operationally. However, this is not the case with snow monitoring. Currently only ground-based in situ and weather measurements are used operationally for snow monitoring in Finland. Ground measurements are conducted once a month on special snow courses. These measurements are used to update the hydrological model that simulates the runoff. Recently optical images (NOAA AVHRR) have been tested to derive a map of the areal extent of snow. However, during the snow melt, which is the most important period for hydrology, there are few cloudless days and, therefore, the availability of optical data is limited. That is why microwave remote sensing can play an important role in snow melt monitoring due to its unique capability to provide data independent of sun light and in almost all weather conditions. The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data may make a significant contribution to satellite observations of snow by bridging the period between the on-set and end of snow melt. Microwave radiometers can be used to retrieve the snow water equivalent of dry snow, but they cannot be used to distinguish wet snow and wet ground during the melting period. The results of the thesis indicate that, even in the presence of forest canopies, (1) wet snow can be distinguished from dry snow and bare ground, (2) snow-free areas can be identified, (3) seasonal evolution of snow cover can be monitored and (4) snow-melt maps showing the fraction of snow-free ground (wet ground) and snow (wet snow) can be derived from SAR images.reviewe

Microwave Indices from Active and Passive Sensors for Remote Sensing Applications

Past research has comprehensively assessed the capabilities of satellite sensors operating at microwave frequencies, both active (SAR, scatterometers) and passive (radiometers), for the remote sensing of Earth’s surface. Besides brightness temperature and backscattering coefficient, microwave indices, defined as a combination of data collected at different frequencies and polarizations, revealed a good sensitivity to hydrological cycle parameters such as surface soil moisture, vegetation water content, and snow depth and its water equivalent. The differences between microwave backscattering and emission at more frequencies and polarizations have been well established in relation to these parameters, enabling operational retrieval algorithms based on microwave indices to be developed. This Special Issue aims at providing an overview of microwave signal capabilities in estimating the main land parameters of the hydrological cycle, e.g., soil moisture, vegetation water content, and snow water equivalent, on both local and global scales, with a particular focus on the applications of microwave indices

Fundamental remote sensing science research program. Part 1: Scene radiation and atmospheric effects characterization project

Brief articles summarizing the status of research in the scene radiation and atmospheric effect characterization (SRAEC) project are presented. Research conducted within the SRAEC program is focused on the development of empirical characterizations and mathematical process models which relate the electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted from a scene to the biophysical parameters of interest

Microwave models of snow characteristics for remote sensing

One of the key problems of microwave remote sensing is the development of theoretical microwave models for terrain such as soil, vegetation, snow, forest, etc., due to the complexity of modeling of microwave interaction with the terrain. In this thesis this problem is approached from the new point of view of both empirical models and rigorous theoretical models. New information concerning radar remote sensing of snow-covered terrain and permittivity of snow has been produced. A C-band semi-empirical backscattering model is presented for the forest-snow-ground system. The effective permittivity of random media such as snow, vegetation canopy, soil, etc., describes microwave propagation and attenuation in the media and is a very important parameter in modeling of microwave interaction with the terrain. Good permittivity models are needed in microwave emission and scattering models of terrain. In this thesis, the strong fluctuation theory is applied to calculate the effective permittivity of wet snow. Numerical results for the effective permittivity of wet snow are illustrated. The results are compared with the semi-empirical and the theoretical models. A comparison with experimental data at 6, 18 and 37 GHz is also presented. The results indicate that the model presented in this work gives reasonably good accuracy for calculating the effective permittivity of wet snow. Microwave emission and scattering theoretical models of wet snow are developed based on the radiative transfer and strong fluctuation theory. It is shown that the models agree with the experimental data.reviewe

L'approche méthodologique à la validation d'une paramétrisation des aérosols et nuages en utilisant le simulateur des instruments d'Earthcare

La validation d'un modèle atmosphérique avec les observations satellitaires est basée sur les différentes techniques de télédétection employées afin de récupérer des propriétés physiques et optiques de composantes atmosphériques, notamment des nuages et des aérosols. Il est bien connu que le « retrieval approach » introduit de grandes incohérences en raison des hypothèses diverses portant sur le problème d'inversion où la principale difficulté est l'unicité de la solution. Autrement dit, le milieu analysé peut être composé d'un certain nombre de paramètres physiques inconnus dont les combinaisons différentes mènent au même signal de radiation. En plus du problème d'unicité de la solution, il y a plusieurs problèmes mathématiques reliés à l'existence et à la stabilité de la solution ainsi qu'à la manière dont la solution est construite. Par contre, il est bien connu que les prévisions des modèles atmosphériques souffrent d'incertitudes portant sur l'approche numérique qui limite leurs applications à la simulation de phénomènes naturels. Malgré ces difficultés, certains aspects des prévisions numériques peuvent être considérées comme réalistes parce qu'elles prennent explicitement en considération les principes de la physique, dont des processus microphysiques des nuages et des aérosols. Dans ce contexte, la motivation principale de cette recherche est d'évaluer le potentiel de la validation des paramétrisations physiques des aérosols et des nuages dans les modèles climatiques par le biais des mesures satellitaires (radar et lidar) en utilisant les « simulation vers l'avant ». Dans cette étude, nous utilisons une approche qui emploie le modèle Simulateur des instruments d'EarthCARE afin de reproduire des mesures satellitaires comparables à celles du radar et du lidar. Compte tenu du manque de mesures satellitaires, la validation se base sur les mesures directes du lidar et du radar de l'expérience APEX-E3 réalisées au printemps 2003 où les fréquences et la performance des systèmes d'observation correspondent à celles qui vont être mesurées par le satellite EarthCARE. Les caractéristiques microphysiques des nuages et des aérosols ainsi que l'état de l'atmosphère sont produites par le modèle atmosphérique NARCM. Elles sont ensuite converties en données de réflectivité pour le radar et en données de rétrodiffusion pour lidar en utilisant le Simulateur des Instruments d'EarthCARE. Pour terminer, les résultats sont comparés aux mesures de radar et de lidar de l'expérience APEX-E3. Les champs d'aérosols simulés avec NARCM indiquent un accord important avec ceux qui sont observés, mais les propriétés microphysiques des nuages simulées ne sont pas compatibles avec les observations. Autrement dit, les résultats montrent un large désaccord entre la réflectivité observée et la réflectivité simulée en dépit du fait que ses étendues verticales sont relativement similaires. Le nuage simulé est plus mince, situé à plus haute altitude et les valeurs maximales de réflectivité dans le nuage sont environ 5-10 dBZ inférieures à celles du nuage observé. De plus, le coefficient de la rétrodiffusion simulé (sans eau liquide) au-dessous de la base et au-dessus du sommet du nuage est nettement plus faible par rapport au coefficient de rétrodiffusion observé. Il y a également, à ces deux niveaux une plus grande quantité d'eau glacée observée que dans le cas simulé par NARCM. Si la présence d'eau liquide est incluse dans le Simulateur des lnstruments d'EarthCARE, les valeurs simulées du coefficient de rétrodiffusion sont de plusieurs ordres de grandeurs supérieures à celles observées, ce qui suggère que les valeurs du contenu en eau liquide simulées par NARCM sont surestimées d'une manière significative par rapport à toutes les altitudes où le nuage observé est présent. En conclusion, l'analyse montre que la paramétrisation microphysique de Lohmann (Lohmann et Roeckner, 1996) ne possède pas la capacité de produire les quantités glace observées dans le cas de cirrostratus. Il est également constaté que le contenu d'eau glacé de NARCM est sous-estimé, et que le contenu d'eau liquide est surestimé. Les résultats de cette étude confirment donc que l'utilisation du « forward approach » a un grand potentiel dans la validation de la paramétrisation des aérosols et des nuages. Par contre, des nouvelles vérifications seront nécessaires pour accomplir le processus de validation. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Validation, Rétrodiffusion de lidar, Réflectivité de radar, Simulations régionales des modèles atmosphériques

A laboratory investigation into microwave backscattering from sea ice

The sources of scattering of artificial sea ice were determined, backscatter measurements semi-quantitatively were compared with theoretical predictions, and inexpensive polarimetric radars were developed for sea ice backscatter studies. A brief review of the dielectric properties of sea ice and of commonly used surface and volume scattering theories is presented. A description is provided of the backscatter measurements performed and experimental techniques used. The development of inexpensive short-range polarimetric radars is discussed. The steps taken to add polarimetric capability to a simple FM-W radar are considered as are sample polarimetric phase measurements of the radar. Ice surface characterization data and techniques are discussed, including computation of surface rms height and correlation length and air bubble distribution statistics. A method is also presented of estimating the standard deviation of rms height and correlation length for cases of few data points. Comparisons were made of backscatter measurements and theory. It was determined that backscatter from an extremely smooth saline ice surface at C band cannot be attributed only to surface scatter. It was found that snow cover had a significant influence on backscatter from extremely smooth saline ice at C band

Accomplishments of the NASA Johnson Space Center portion of the soil moisture project in fiscal year 1981

The NASA/JSC ground scatterometer system was used in a row structure and row direction effects experiment to understand these effects on radar remote sensing of soil moisture. Also, a modification of the scatterometer system was begun and is continuing, to allow cross-polarization experiments to be conducted in fiscal years 1982 and 1983. Preprocessing of the 1978 agricultural soil moisture experiment (ASME) data was completed. Preparations for analysis of the ASME data is fiscal year 1982 were completed. A radar image simulation procedure developed by the University of Kansas is being improved. Profile soil moisture model outputs were compared quantitatively for the same soil and climate conditions. A new model was developed and tested to predict the soil moisture characteristic (water tension versus volumetric soil moisture content) from particle-size distribution and bulk density data. Relationships between surface-zone soil moisture, surface flux, and subsurface moisture conditions are being studied as well as the ways in which measured soil moisture (as obtained from remote sensing) can be used for agricultural applications

Response of Pacific-sector Antarctic ice shelves to the El Niño/Southern Oscillation.

Satellite observations over the past two decades have revealed increasing loss of grounded ice in West Antarctica, associated with floating ice shelves that have been thinning. Thinning reduces an ice-shelf's ability to restrain grounded-ice discharge, yet our understanding of the climate processes that drive mass changes is limited. Here, we use ice-shelf height data from four satellite altimeter missions (1994-2017) to show a direct link between ice-shelf-height variability in the Antarctic Pacific sector and changes in regional atmospheric circulation driven by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. This link is strongest from Dotson to Ross ice shelves and weaker elsewhere. During intense El Niño years, height increase by accumulation exceeds the height decrease by basal melting, but net ice-shelf mass declines as basal ice loss exceeds lower-density snow gain. Our results demonstrate a substantial response of Amundsen Sea ice shelves to global and regional climate variability, with rates of change in height and mass on interannual timescales that can be comparable to the longer-term trend, and with mass changes from surface accumulation offsetting a significant fraction of the changes in basal melting. This implies that ice-shelf height and mass variability will increase as interannual atmospheric variability increases in a warming climate

Development and Evaluation of a Multi-Year Fractional Surface Water Data Set Derived from Active/Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Data

abstract: The sensitivity of Earth’s wetlands to observed shifts in global precipitation and temperature patterns and their ability to produce large quantities of methane gas are key global change questions. We present a microwave satellite-based approach for mapping fractional surface water (FW) globally at 25-km resolution. The approach employs a land cover-supported, atmospherically-corrected dynamic mixture model applied to 20+ years (1992–2013) of combined, daily, passive/active microwave remote sensing data. The resulting product, known as Surface WAter Microwave Product Series (SWAMPS), shows strong microwave sensitivity to sub-grid scale open water and inundated wetlands comprising open plant canopies. SWAMPS’ FW compares favorably (R[superscript 2] = 91%–94%) with higher-resolution, global-scale maps of open water from MODIS and SRTM-MOD44W. Correspondence of SWAMPS with open water and wetland products from satellite SAR in Alaska and the Amazon deteriorates when exposed wetlands or inundated forests captured by the SAR products were added to the open water fraction reflecting SWAMPS’ inability to detect water underneath the soil surface or beneath closed forest canopies. Except for a brief period of drying during the first 4 years of observation, the inundation extent for the global domain excluding the coast was largely stable. Regionally, inundation in North America is advancing while inundation is on the retreat in Tropical Africa and North Eurasia. SWAMPS provides a consistent and long-term global record of daily FW dynamics, with documented accuracies suitable for hydrologic assessment and global change-related investigations.The final version of this article, as published in Remote Sensing, can be viewed online at: http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/7/12/1584

A compendium of millimeter wave propagation studies performed by NASA

Key millimeter wave propagation experiments and analytical results were summarized. The experiments were performed with the Ats-5, Ats-6 and Comstar satellites, radars, radiometers and rain gage networks. Analytic models were developed for extrapolation of experimental results to frequencies, locations, and communications systems