Radar studies of the vertical distribution of insects migrating over southern Britain: the influence of temperature inversions on nocturnal layer concentrations

Insects migrating over two sites in southern UK (Malvern in Worcestershire, and Harpenden in Hertfordshire) have been monitored continuously with nutating vertical-looking radars (VLRs) equipped with powerful control and analysis software. These observations make possible, for the first time, a systematic investigation of the vertical distribution of insect aerial density in the atmosphere, over temporal scales ranging from the short (instantaneous vertical profiles updated every 15 min) to the very long (profiles aggregated over whole seasons or even years). In the present paper, an outline is given of some general features of insect stratification as revealed by the radars, followed by a description of occasions during warm nights in the summer months when intense insect layers developed. Some of these nocturnal layers were due to the insects flying preferentially at the top of strong surface temperature inversions, and in other cases, layering was associated with higher-altitude temperature maxima, such as those due to subsidence inversions. The layers were formed from insects of a great variety of sizes, but peaks in the mass distributions pointed to a preponderance of medium-sized noctuid moths on certain occasions

The influence of the atmospheric boundary layer on nocturnal layers of noctuids and other moths migrating over southern Britain

Insects migrating at high altitude over southern Britain have been continuously monitored by automatically-operating, vertical-looking radars over a period of several years. During some occasions in the summer months, the migrants were observed to form well-defined layer concentrations, typically at heights of 200-400 m, in the stable night-time atmosphere. Under these conditions, insects are likely to have control over their vertical movements and are selecting flight heights which are favourable for long-range migration. We therefore investigated the factors influencing the formation of these insect layers by comparing radar measurements of the vertical distribution of insect density with meteorological profiles generated by the UK Met. Office’s Unified Model (UM). Radar-derived measurements of mass and displacement speed, along with data from Rothamsted Insect Survey light traps provided information on the identity of the migrants. We present here three case studies where noctuid and pyralid moths contributed substantially to the observed layers. The major meteorological factors influencing the layer concentrations appeared to be: (a) the altitude of the warmest air, (b) heights corresponding to temperature preferences or thresholds for sustained migration and (c), on nights when air temperatures are relatively high, wind-speed maxima associated with the nocturnal jet. Back-trajectories indicated that layer duration may have been determined by the distance to the coast. Overall, the unique combination of meteorological data from the UM and insect data from entomological radar described here show considerable promise for systematic studies of high-altitude insect layering

Observations of the daytime boundary layer in deep alpine valleys

Peer reviewe

Observations of the daytime boundary layer in deep alpine valleys

Peer reviewe

The movement of small insects in the convective boundary layer: linking patterns to processes

In fine warm weather, the daytime convective atmosphere over land areas is full of small migrant insects, among them serious pests (e.g. some species of aphid), but also many beneficial species (e.g. natural enemies of pests). For many years intensive aerial trapping studies were the only way of determining the density profiles of these small insects, and for taxon-specific studies trapping is still necessary. However, if we wish to determine generic behavioural responses to air movements shown by small day-migrating insects as a whole, the combination of millimetre-wavelength ‘cloud radars’ and Doppler lidar now provides virtually ideal instrumentation. Here we examine the net vertical velocities of > 1 million insect targets, relative to the vertical motion of the air in which they are flying, as a succession of fair-weather convective cells pass over the recording site in Oklahoma, USA. The resulting velocity measurements are interpreted in terms of the flight behaviours of small insects. These behaviours are accounted for by a newly-developed Lagrangian stochastic model of weakly-flying insect movements in the convective boundary layer; a model which is consistent with classic characterisations of small insect aerial density profiles. We thereby link patterns to processes

Boundary layer features observed during NAME 2004

2011 Spring.Includes bibliographical references.S-Pol radar data from the North American Monsoon Experiment (NAME) are examined to investigate the characteristics of sea breezes that occurred during the North American Monsoon in the late summer of 2004, as well as their role in modulating monsoon convection. Zero degree plan position indicated (PPI) scans were examined to determine the presence of a sea breeze fine line in the S-Pol radar data. Sea breeze fine lines were typically observed over land very near the coast of the Gulf of California (GoC), and usually moved onshore around 1700-1800 UTC (11:00 AM - 12:00 PM local time), and then continued to move slowly inland on the coastal plain. The sea breezes typically moved on land and dissipated before any significant interactions with Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) convection could occur. Fine lines varied in reflectivity strength, but were typically around 10 to 20 dBZ. Surface winds from the Estación Obispo (ETO) supersite were analyzed to confirm the presence of a shift in wind direction on days in which a fine line had been identified. Typically winds changed from light and variable to consistently out of the west or southwest. Vertical plots of S-Pol reflectivity were created to examine sea breeze structure in the vertical, but these were not found to be useful as the sea breeze signature was nearly impossible to distinguish from other boundary layer features. Horizontal structure was further investigated using wind profiler relative reflectivity, vertical velocity, and horizontal winds from the profiler located at ETO. Relative reflectivity and vertical velocity fields revealed a complex boundary layer structure on some days of repeating updrafts and downdrafts. Further examination of S-Pol PPI data revealed that these vertical motions are likely due to the presence of horizontal convective rolls. Profiler horizontal winds revealed that the depth and vertical structure of the sea breezes varied significantly from day to day, but that the height of the sea breeze is around 1 km above the ground. Sea breezes observed during NAME almost never initiated convection on their own. It is hypothesized that a weak thermal contrast between the GoC and the land leads to comparatively weak sea breezes, which don't have enough lift to trigger convection

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING FOR ATMOSPHERIC APPLICATIONS

The atmosphere surrounding our planet is vital for the existence of many living organisms, including humans. Although this layer is quite thin, there are numerous components interacting with each other with processes taking place across widely different spatial and temporal scales. No single instrument is able to cover all of these scales, and therefore, in order to advance our knowledge of atmospheric processes and composition, different instruments, methods and synergy of instruments have to be applied. Remote sensing techniques offer a variety of possibilities for atmospheric research. Satellite remote sensing is exploited to get a regional or global view on the problems, to verify climate models, as well as to reach locations which are not accessible for measurements otherwise. Ground-based remote sensing allows a continuous monitoring of the vertical structure of the atmosphere and, due to exploiting various wavelengths, the observation of atmospheric compounds of various sizes from gases to aerosol particles to snowflakes. In this thesis, several remote sensing techniques have been utilized to find new methods of utilizing existing observations as well as the application of known methods to new geographical locations. A novel method is proposed for retrieving convective boundary layer height during spring and summer months using insect echoes in radar returns. Observations from several different radar frequencies were analysed and the proposed method was proven applicable at all frequencies given some limitations. Moreover, this method can serve as a platform for future research in different geographical locations where insects might behave differently. The synergy of ground-based lidar and airborne in situ measurements were used to study elevated aerosol layers in Southern Finland. Based on two cases, a clear-sky and partly cloudy case, the temporal and spatial variability of aerosol particle number concentration in the boundary layer and several elevated layers were investigated. Nucleation mode particles (the smallest aerosol sizes) were also detected in one of the elevated layers, which was probably not mixing with the boundary layer during a new particle formation event. In addition to aerosol particles, some lidars have the capability to measure water vapor profiles. Several calibration methods for this type of lidar were analysed in order to find an alternative to the usual method of using a radiosonde launched close by, since radiosondes may not always be available at every site. Output from a weather forecast model, or a radiosonde profile which was 100 km away, were both found to be reliable, whereas the use of satellite products required more caution in the absence of other methods. The seasonal variability of water vapour profiles was also studied. Satellite remote sensing observations were probed to obtain proxies of nucleation mode aerosol particles, which are otherwise not seen from space. So far, the results were not very successful, however, some bottlenecks were identified with a potential to improve the proxies in the future.Atmosfären som omger vår planet är avgörande för existensen av olika levande organismer, inklusive människor. Trots att detta lager är ganska tunt, finns det massor av komponenter som interagerar med varandra och processer som äger rum i olika rumsliga och tidsmässiga skalor. Inget enskilt instrument kan täcka alla dessa skalor och därför måste olika instrument, metoder och synergier av instrument användas för att föra fram vår kunskap om atmosfäriska processer och sammansättningar. Fjärranalysmetoder erbjuder en mängd olika möjligheter för atmosfärisk forskning. Satellitfjärranalys utnyttjas för att få en regional eller global syn på problemen, för att verifiera klimatmodeller, samt för att nå platser som annars inte är tillgängliga för mätningar. Markbaserad fjärranalys möjliggör en kontinuerlig övervakning av atmosfärens vertikala struktur och, genom att utnyttja olika våglängder, observation av atmosfäriska sammansättningar av olika storlekar från aerosolpartiklar till snöflingor. I denna avhandling har flera fjärranalysmetoder använts för att hitta nya sätt att utnyttja befintliga observationer samt för att tillämpa kända metoder på nya geografiska platser. En ny metod föreslås för att skapa en konvektiv gränsskiktshöjd under vår- och sommarmånaderna med hjälp av insektsekon i radarsignalen. Observationer från flera olika radarfrekvenser analyserades och den föreslagna metoden visade sig vara tillämpbar på alla frekvenser med vissa begränsningar. Dessutom kan denna metod fungera som en plattform för framtida forskning på olika geografiska platser där insekter kan bete sig annorlunda. Synergin mellan markbaserad lidar och luftburna in situ-mätningar användes för att studera förhöjda aerosollager i södra Finland. Den temporala och rumsliga variationen av aerosolpartikelkoncentrationen i gränsskiktet och förhöjda lager undersöktes baserat på två fall, ett med klar himmel och ett delvis molnigt. Nukleationsmodpartiklar (de minsta aerosolstorlekarna) detekterades också i ett av de förhöjda skikten, som troligtvis inte blandades med gränsskiktet under en ny partikelbildningshändelse. Förutom aerosolpartiklar har vissa lidarer förmågan att mäta vattenångsprofiler. Flera kalibreringsmetoder för denna typ av lidar analyserades för att hitta ett alternativ till den vanliga metoden att använda en radiosonde som lanseras i närheten, eftersom radiosonder inte alltid är tillgängliga på alla platser. Utdata från en väderprognosmodell eller en radiosondeprofil på 100 km avstånd, visade sig båda vara tillförlitliga, medan användningen av satellitprodukter krävde mer försiktighet i avsaknad av andra metoder. Den säsongsmässiga variationen av vattenångprofiler studerades också. Satellitfjärranalysobservationer undersöktes för att erhålla proxies för aerosolpartiklar i kärnbildningsläge, vilka annars inte kan ses från rymden. Hittills har resultaten dock inte varit särskilt framgångsrika, men vissa flaskhalsar har identifierats med potential att förbättra fullmakterna i framtiden

Predicting insect migration density and speed in the daytime convective boundary layer

Insect migration needs to be quantified if spatial and temporal patterns in populations are to be resolved. Yet so little ecology is understood above the flight boundary layer (i.e. >10 m) where in north-west Europe an estimated 3 billion insects km(-1) month(-1) comprising pests, beneficial insects and other species that contribute to biodiversity use the atmosphere to migrate. Consequently, we elucidate meteorological mechanisms principally related to wind speed and temperature that drive variation in daytime aerial density and insect displacements speeds with increasing altitude (150-1200 m above ground level). We derived average aerial densities and displacement speeds of 1.7 million insects in the daytime convective atmospheric boundary layer using vertical-looking entomological radars. We first studied patterns of insect aerial densities and displacements speeds over a decade and linked these with average temperatures and wind velocities from a numerical weather prediction model. Generalized linear mixed models showed that average insect densities decline with increasing wind speed and increase with increasing temperatures and that the relationship between displacement speed and density was negative. We then sought to derive how general these patterns were over space using a paired site approach in which the relationship between sites was examined using simple linear regression. Both average speeds and densities were predicted remotely from a site over 100 km away, although insect densities were much noisier due to local 'spiking'. By late morning and afternoon when insects are migrating in a well-developed convective atmosphere at high altitude, they become much more difficult to predict remotely than during the early morning and at lower altitudes. Overall, our findings suggest that predicting migrating insects at altitude at distances of ≈ 100 km is promising, but additional radars are needed to parameterise spatial covariance

Radar, Insect Population Ecology, and Pest Management

Discussions included: (1) the potential role of radar in insect ecology studies and pest management; (2) the potential role of radar in correlating atmospheric phenomena with insect movement; (3) the present and future radar systems; (4) program objectives required to adapt radar to insect ecology studies and pest management; and (5) the specific action items to achieve the objectives

Improvements to the UMASS S-Band FM-CW Vertical Wind Profiling Radar: System Performance and Data Analysis.

Upgrades to the University of Massachusetts S-Band FMCW boundary layer vertical wind profiling radar for use in the VORTEX-Southeast campaign are discussed. During the experiment, the radar characterizes velocity and reflectivity in clear-air and light to moderate precipitation conditions. Data is presented from the experiment which illustrates system performance and typical environmental results. This thesis begins with relevant background information on FM-CW radar operation, scattering mechanisms, and other calculations relevant to results discussed. The system hardware is described, along with improvements and modifications made prior to and during the experiment. Collected data is used to demonstrate system capabilities, improvements made, and remaining challenges. Various environmental features in the case of clear-air and precipitation are identified in the dataset. Several examples of Drop Size Distribution (DSD) estimates are presented, and the possibility of separating vertical wind speed biases from rain data is explored. Finally, the validity of results of DSD estimates are discussed