GNSS transpolar earth reflectometry exploriNg system (G-TERN): mission concept

The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) Transpolar Earth Reflectometry exploriNg system (G-TERN) was proposed in response to ESA's Earth Explorer 9 revised call by a team of 33 multi-disciplinary scientists. The primary objective of the mission is to quantify at high spatio-temporal resolution crucial characteristics, processes and interactions between sea ice, and other Earth system components in order to advance the understanding and prediction of climate change and its impacts on the environment and society. The objective is articulated through three key questions. 1) In a rapidly changing Arctic regime and under the resilient Antarctic sea ice trend, how will highly dynamic forcings and couplings between the various components of the ocean, atmosphere, and cryosphere modify or influence the processes governing the characteristics of the sea ice cover (ice production, growth, deformation, and melt)? 2) What are the impacts of extreme events and feedback mechanisms on sea ice evolution? 3) What are the effects of the cryosphere behaviors, either rapidly changing or resiliently stable, on the global oceanic and atmospheric circulation and mid-latitude extreme events? To contribute answering these questions, G-TERN will measure key parameters of the sea ice, the oceans, and the atmosphere with frequent and dense coverage over polar areas, becoming a “dynamic mapper”of the ice conditions, the ice production, and the loss in multiple time and space scales, and surrounding environment. Over polar areas, the G-TERN will measure sea ice surface elevation (<;10 cm precision), roughness, and polarimetry aspects at 30-km resolution and 3-days full coverage. G-TERN will implement the interferometric GNSS reflectometry concept, from a single satellite in near-polar orbit with capability for 12 simultaneous observations. Unlike currently orbiting GNSS reflectometry missions, the G-TERN uses the full GNSS available bandwidth to improve its ranging measurements. The lifetime would be 2025-2030 or optimally 2025-2035, covering key stages of the transition toward a nearly ice-free Arctic Ocean in summer. This paper describes the mission objectives, it reviews its measurement techniques, summarizes the suggested implementation, and finally, it estimates the expected performance.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Remote sensing of snow and ice: A review of the research in the United States 1975 - 1978

Research work in the United States from 1975-1978 in the field of remote sensing of snow and ice is reviewed. Topics covered include snowcover mapping, snowmelt runoff forecasting, demonstration projects, snow water equivalent and free water content determination, glaciers, river and lake ice, and sea ice. A bibliography of 200 references is included

GNSS-R as a source of opportunity for remote sensing of the cryosphere

This work evaluates the potential use of signals from the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) that scatter off the Earth surface for the retrieval of geophysical information from the cryosphere. For this purpose, the present study is based on data collected with a dedicated reflectometry GNSS receiver during two field campaigns, which were focused on two types of characteristic surfaces of the cryosphere: thin sea ice covers and thick dry snow accumulations. During the first experiment, the complete process of formation, evolution and melting of sea ice was monitorized for more than seven months in a bay located in Greenland. This type of ice is typically characterized by its thickness, concentration and roughness. Different observables from GNSS reflections are analyzed to try to infer these properties. The ice thickness is linked to the free-board level, defined as the height of the sea ice surface. Accurate phase altimetry is achieved, showing good agreement with an Arctic tide model. In addition, the long term results of ellipsoidal height retrievals are consistent with the evolution of the ice surface temperature product given by MODIS, which is a key parameter in the rate of growth of sea ice. On the other hand, the presence of salinity in the sea ice modifies its dielectric properties, resulting in different amplitude and phase for the co- and cross-polar components of the complex Fresnel coefficients. The polarimetric measurements obtained show good agreement with visual inspections of ice concentration from an Arctic weather station. Finally, the shape of the reflected signals and its phase dispersion are tested as potential signatures of surface roughness. For comparison, ice charts of the experimental area are employed. In particular, maximums in roughness given by the GNSS observables coincide with fast ice events. Fast ice is defined as ice anchored to the coast, where the tidal movements contribute to the development of strange patterns, cracks, and fissures on its surface, thus consistent with the GNSS-R roughness retrievals. The second experiment took place on Antarctica, monitoring a pristine snow area which is well-known for the calibration of remote sensing instruments. Due to the relative stability of the snow layers, the data acquisition was limited to ten continuous days. Interferometric beats were found after a first analysis of the amplitude from the collected signals, which were consistent with a multipath model where the reflector lies below the surface level. Motivated by these results, a forward model is developed that reconstructs the complex received signal as a sum of a finite number of reflections, coming from different snow layers (a snow density profile obtained from in-situ measurements). The interferometric information is then retrieved from the spectral analysis applied to time series from both real and modeled signals (lag-holograms). We find that the frequency bands predicted by the model are in general consistent with the data and the lag-holograms show repeatability for different days. Then, we attempt a proper inversion of the collected data to determine the dominant layers of the dry snow profile that contribute to L-band reflections, which are related to significant gradients of snow density/permittivity.Aquest treball avalua el possible ús dels senyals dels sistemes mundials de navegació per satèl lit (GNSS) que es reflecteixen a la superfície terrestre, per a l’extracció de la informació geofísica de la criosfera. Amb aquest propòsit, el present estudi es basa en dades recollides amb un reflectòmetre GNSS durant dues campanyes experimentals, centrades en dos tipus de superfícies característiques de la criosfera: cobertes de gel marí i gruixudes acumulacions de neu seca. En el primer experiment, el procés complet de formació, evolució i fusió del gel marí va ser monitoritzat durant més de set mesos a una badia situada a Groenlàndia. Aquest tipus de gel es caracteritza típicament amb el seu gruix, concentració i rugositat. Diferents observables de les reflexions GNSS són analitzats per tractar de fer una estimació d’aquestes propietats. El gruix de gel està relacionat amb el nivell de francbord, que a la seva vegada està relacionat amb l’alçada de la superfície de gel marí. S’ha aconseguit altimetria de fase precisa, que mostra correlació amb un model de marea de l’Àrtic. A més, els resultats a llarg termini de l’alçada elipsoidal segueixen l’evolució de les mesures de temperatura de superfície de gel donades per MODIS. La temperatura és un paràmetre clau en el ritme de creixement del gel marí. Per altra banda, la presència de sal a aquest tipus de gel modifica les seves propietats dielèctriques, el que implica variacions d’amplitud i fase per als coeficients de Fresnel complexos amb polaritzacions oposades. Les mesures polarimètriques obtingudes mostren concordança amb els valors de concentració de gel obtinguts des d’una estació meteorològica propera. Finalment, la forma de la senyal reflectida i la dispersió de la seva fase s’evaluen com a potencials indicadors de la rugositat de superfície. Per a la seva comparació, es fan servir mapes del gel de la zona experimental. En concret, els valors màxims a la rugositat estimada a partir pels observables GNSS coincideixen amb el gel fixe, que es refereix a gel ancorat a la costa, on els moviments de les marees contribueixen al desenvolupament de patrons estranys, esquerdes i fissures en la seva superfície. El segon experiment es va dur a terme a l’Antàrtida, monitoritzant una àrea de neu pristina que és ben coneguda per al calibratge d’instruments de teledetecció. A causa de la relativa estabilitat de les capes de neu, l’adquisició de dades es va limitar a deu dies consecutius. Es van trobar pulsacions interferomètriques a partir d’un primer anàlisi de l’amplitud de les senyals recollides, les quals eren compatibles amb un model de propagació multicamí a on el reflector es troba per sota del nivell de superfície. Com a conseqüència d’aquests resultats, s’ha desenvolupat un model que reconstrueix el senyal complexe rebut com la suma d’un nombre finit de reflexions, procedents de diferents capes de neu (determinat per mesures locals). La informació interferomètrica es recupera després de l’anàlisi espectral aplicat a les sèries temporals tant de les senyals reals, com de les modelades (lag-hologrames). Trobem que les bandes de freqüències predites pel model són en general consistents amb les dades i que els lag-hologrames mostren repetibilitat per dies diferents. Posteriorment, es realitza un anàlisi de les dades recollides per determinar les capes dominants del perfil de neu seca que contribueixen a les reflexions en banda L, i que a la seva vegada, estan relacionades amb gradents significatius de densitat/permitivitat.Este trabajo evalúa el posible uso de las señales de los sistemas globales de navegación por satélite (GNSS) que se reflejan en la superficie terrestre para la extracción de información geofísica de la criosfera. Con este propósito, el presente estudio se basa en datos recogidos con un reflectómetro GNSS durante dos campañas experimentales, centradas en dos tipos de superficies características de la criosfera: capas de hielo marino y gruesas acumulaciones de nieve seca. Durante el primer experimento, el proceso completo de formación, evolución y fusión del hielo marino fue monitorizado durante más de siete meses en una bahía ubicada en Groenlandia. Este tipo de hielo se caracteriza típicamente por su grosor, concentración y rugosidad. Diferentes observables de las reflexiones GNSS son analizados para tratar de estimar dichas propiedades. El espesor de hielo está relacionado con el nivel de francobordo o borda libre, que a su vez está relacionado con la altura de la superficie de hielo marino. Se ha logrado altimetría de fase precisa, mostrando correlación con un modelo de marea del Ártico. Además, los resultados a largo plazo de la altura elipsoidal siguen la evolución de las mediciones de temperatura de superficie de hielo proporcionadas por MODIS. La temperatura es un parámetro clave en el ritmo de crecimiento del hielo marino. Por otro lado, la presencia de sal en este tipo de hielo modifica sus propiedades dieléctricas, lo que implica variaciones en las amplitudes y fases de los coeficientes complejos de Fresnel con polarizaciones opuestas. Los resultados polarimétricos concuerdan con los valores de concentración de hielo obtenidos mediante inspección visual desde una estación meteorológica cercana. Por último, la forma de la señal reflejada y la dispersión de su fase son evaluadas como potenciales indicadores de la rugosidad de superficie. Para su comparación, se emplean mapas del hielo de la zona experimental. En particular, valores máximos de rugosidad estimada por los observables GNSS coinciden con hielo fijo, que se refiere al hielo anclado a la costa, donde los movimientos de las mareas contribuyen al desarrollo de patrones extraños, grietas y fisuras en su superficie. El segundo experimento se llevó a cabo en la Antártida, monitorizando una área de nieve pristina que es bien conocida para la calibración de instrumentos de teledetección. Debido a la relativa estabilidad de las capas de nieve, la adquisición de datos se limitó a diez días consecutivos. Se encontraron pulsaciones interferométricas a partir de un primer análisis de la amplitud de las señales recibidas, las cuales eran compatibles con un modelo de propagación multicamino donde el reflector se encuentra por debajo del nivel de la superficie. Como consecuencia de estos resultados, se ha desarrollado un modelo que reconstruye la señal recibida como la suma de un número finito de reflexiones, procedentes de diferentes capas de nieve (caracterizados por mediciones locales). La información interferométrica se recupera después del análisis espectral aplicado a las series temporales tanto de las señales reales, como de las modeladas (lag-hologramas). Encontramos que las bandas de frecuencias predichas por el modelo son en general consistentes con los datos y que los lag-hologramas muestran repetibilidad para días diferentes. Posteriormente, se realiza un análisis de los datos recogidos para determinar las capas dominantes del perfil de nieve seca que contribuyen a las reflexiones en banda L, y que a su vez, están relacionadas con gradientes significativos de densidad/permitivida

Exploring bistatic scattering modeling for land surface applications using radio spectrum recycling in the Signal of Opportunity Coherent Bistatic Simulator

The potential for high spatio-temporal resolution microwave measurements has urged the adoption of the signals of opportunity (SoOp) passive radar technique for use in remote sensing. Recent trends in particular target highly complex remote sensing problems such as root-zone soil moisture and snow water equivalent. This dissertation explores the continued open-sourcing of the SoOp coherent bistatic scattering model (SCoBi) and its use in soil moisture sensing applications. Starting from ground-based applications, the feasibility of root-zone soil moisture remote sensing is assessed using available SoOp resources below L-band. A modularized, spaceborne model is then developed to simulate land-surface scattering and delay-Doppler maps over the available spectrum of SoOp resources. The simulation tools are intended to provide insights for future spaceborne modeling pursuits

Forward and Inverse Modeling of GPS Multipath for Snow Monitoring

Snowpacks provide reservoirs of freshwater, storing solid precipitation and delaying runoff to be released later in the spring and summer when it is most needed. The goal of this dissertation is to develop the technique of GPS multipath reflectometry (GPS-MR) for ground-based measurement of snow depth. The phenomenon of multipath in GPS constitutes the reception of reflected signals in conjunction with the direct signal from a satellite. As these coherent direct and reflected signals go in and out of phase, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exhibits peaks and troughs that can be related to land surface characteristics. In contrast to other GPS reflectometry modes, in GPS-MR the poorly separated composite signal is collected utilizing a single antenna and correlated against a single replica. SNR observations derived from the newer L2-frequency civilian GPS signal (L2C) are used, as recorded by commercial off-the-shelf receivers and geodetic-quality antennas in existing GPS sites. I developed a forward/inverse approach for modeling GPS multipath present in SNR observations. The model here is unique in that it capitalizes on known information about the antenna response and the physics of surface scattering to aid in retrieving the unknown snow conditions in the antenna surroundings. This physically-based forward model is utilized to simulate the surface and antenna coupling. The statistically-rigorous inverse model is considered in two parts. Part I (theory) explains how the snow characteristics are parameterized; the observation/parameter sensitivity; inversion errors; and parameter uncertainty, which serves to indicate the sensing footprint where the reflection originates. Part II (practice) applies the multipath model to SNR observations and validates the resulting GPS retrievals against independent in situ measurements during a 1-3 year period in three different environments - grasslands, alpine, and forested. The assessment yields a correlation of 0.98 and an RMS error of 6-8 cm, with the GPS under-estimating in situ snow depth by approximately 15%. GPS daily site averages were found effective in mitigating random noise without unduly smoothing the sharp transitions as captured in new snow events. This work corroborates the readiness of quality-controlled GPS-MR for snow depth monitoring, reinforcing its maturity for operational usage

GNSS Reflectometry for land surface monitoring and buried object detection

Global Navigation Satellite System Reflectometry (GNSS-R) is attracting growing interest nowadays for several remote sensing applications. As a bistatic radar, the transmitter and the receiver are not co-located and in the special case of GNSS-R, the GNSS satellites are acting as transmitters and the receiver can be mounted either in a static position or onboard a aircraft or low orbit satellite. Various information about the surface from where the GNSS signals are reflected or scattered can be extracted by means of reflected signal strength, code delay, carrier phase delay, interference with direct GNSS signals and so on. Possible applications cover soil moisture retrieval, ice topography and thickness detection, snow depth estimation, vegetation coverage, sea state monitoring such as sea wind and surface roughness, sea salinity… In this work, soil moisture retrieval was mostly focused on. Hardware including antennas and receivers was studied and designed. Our first strategy of soil moisture retrieval is to apply a single Left Hand Circular Polarization (LHCP) antenna for reflected signal reception. Therefore multiple types of antennas such as the helix antenna, the patch antenna and several commercial antennas were designed, simulated or tested in the anechoic chamber. Two receiver solutions were used in our group and both of them apply the SiGe GPS frontend. The first solution is a PC based one: the collection and store of the raw incoming reflected GPS signals were done by the NGrab software (designed by NAVSAS Group of Politecnico di Torino) installed in a standard PC. The other solution was developed in our group and it is operated by a single Hackberry board, which consists of power supply, storage subsystem and customized Linux Debian operating system. The light weight and small size enable this compact receiver to perform flight measurement onboard UAVs. Both of the above mentioned receivers only store raw sampled data and no real time signal processing is performed on board. Post processing is done by Matlab program which makes correlations in both time and frequency domain with incoming signals using the local generated GPS C/A code replica. The so-called Delay Doppler Map (DDM) is therefore generated through this correlation. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) can be calculated through Delay Waveform (DW) which is extracted from DDM at the Doppler frequency where the correlation peak exists. Received signal power can be obtained knowing the noise power which is given in a standard equation. In order to better plan a static measurement and to georeference specular points on the surface, programs for georeferencing specular points on either Google Maps or an x-y plane centered at the receiver position were developed. Fly dynamics in terms of roll, pitch and yaw influencing the antenna gain due to the variation of incident angles were also studied in order to compensate the gain to the received signal. Two soil moisture retrieval algorithms were derived corresponding to two receiving schemes. The first one is for the receiving of only LHCP reflected signals. In this case, the surface is assumed to be perfectly smooth and the received signal is seen to consist of only coherent component caused by specular reflection. Dielectric constant can be retrieved from the processed SNR. Two measurement campaigns were carried out using this single LHCP system. The first campaign is a flight measurement overflown a big portion of rice fields when most of the fields were flooded. It was a test measurement on the SNR sensitivity to water/no-water surfaces and an attempt of dielectric constant retrieval was also performed. SNR showed good sensitivity to the surface water content and dielectric constant was also checked to be reasonable. The second campaign is in static positions and it includes two experiments. This campaign initially aimed at testing the sensitivity of the compact receiver to different surface moisture. Results of both SNR and retrieved dielectric constant showed to be coherent with the surface moisture changes. The other retrieval algorithm is for the receiving of both LHCP and RHCP reflected signals concurrently. The cross polarization power ratio (LHCP/RHCP) is believed to be independent of surface roughness by several previous studies and this idea was also verified during the deriving process for either specular reflection case (only coherent component) or diffuse scattering condition (incoherent component). For diffuse scattering, three well known models were applied which are the Kirchhoff Approximation in stationary-phase approximation (Kirchhoff Geometrical Optics, KGO), Kirchhoff Approximation in Physical Optics Approximation (KPO) and Small Perturbation Method (SPM). These three models cover different roughness surfaces from very rough (KGO) to slightly rough surfaces (SPM). All the derived results of cross polarization ratio for the three models were verified to be independent of surface properties and depend on only dielectric constant of soil and incident angle. A new application of GNSS-R technique for the possibility of detection of buried objects was firstly investigated by our group. It has the potential use for man-made mines detection in the military field. Two measurement campaigns were carried out and the variation of the SNR level due to the presence of a metallic object was investigated. The first measurement campaign was performed in a static condition on a sandy terrain to check the functionality of the system. And the presence of the metallic object was detected also in the case of wet terrain. In the second measurement campaign, the antenna was moving along a given path and the possibility of detecting the object dimensions was highlighted. The results show the possibility of adopting this technique on board a remotely controlled UAV for metal object and even its dimension detection. A measurement of snow depth attempting to relate it to reflected LHCP SNR is briefly presented and discussed in Chapter 7

Research of microwave scattering properties of snow fields

The results obtained in the research program of microwave scattering properties of snow fields are presented. Experimental results are presented showing backscatter dependence on frequency (5.8-8.0 GHz), angle of incidence (0-60 degrees), snow wetness (time of day), and frequency modulation (0-500 MHz). Theoretical studies are being made of the inverse scattering problem yielding some preliminary results concerning the determination of the dielectric constant of the snow layer. The experimental results lead to the following conclusions: snow layering affects backscatter, layer response is significant up to 45 degrees of incidence, wetness modifies snow layer effects, frequency modulation masks the layer response, and for the proper choice of probing frequency and for nominal snow depths, it appears to be possible to measure the effective dielectric constant and the corresponding water content of a snow pack

Multiple Volume Scattering in Random Media and Periodic Structures with Applications in Microwave Remote Sensing and Wave Functional Materials

The objective of my research is two-fold: to study wave scattering phenomena in dense volumetric random media and in periodic wave functional materials. For the first part, the goal is to use the microwave remote sensing technique to monitor water resources and global climate change. Towards this goal, I study the microwave scattering behavior of snow and ice sheet. For snowpack scattering, I have extended the traditional dense media radiative transfer (DMRT) approach to include cyclical corrections that give rise to backscattering enhancements, enabling the theory to model combined active and passive observations of snowpack using the same set of physical parameters. Besides DMRT, a fully coherent approach is also developed by solving Maxwell’s equations directly over the entire snowpack including a bottom half space. This revolutionary new approach produces consistent scattering and emission results, and demonstrates backscattering enhancements and coherent layer effects. The birefringence in anisotropic snow layers is also analyzed by numerically solving Maxwell’s equation directly. The effects of rapid density fluctuations in polar ice sheet emission in the 0.5~2.0 GHz spectrum are examined using both fully coherent and partially coherent layered media emission theories that agree with each other and distinct from incoherent approaches. For the second part, the goal is to develop integral equation based methods to solve wave scattering in periodic structures such as photonic crystals and metamaterials that can be used for broadband simulations. Set upon the concept of modal expansion of the periodic Green’s function, we have developed the method of broadband Green’s function with low wavenumber extraction (BBGFL), where a low wavenumber component is extracted and results a non-singular and fast-converging remaining part with simple wavenumber dependence. We’ve applied the technique to simulate band diagrams and modal solutions of periodic structures, and to construct broadband Green’s functions including periodic scatterers.PHDElectrical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/135885/1/srtan_1.pd

Literature review of the remote sensing of natural resources

Abstracts of 596 documents related to remote sensors or the remote sensing of natural resources by satellite, aircraft, or ground-based stations are presented. Topics covered include general theory, geology and hydrology, agriculture and forestry, marine sciences, urban land use, and instrumentation. Recent documents not yet cited in any of the seven information sources used for the compilation are summarized. An author/key word index is provided