Exploring the influence of social media on future intentions of charity sport participants.

Charity sport participation has gained increasing popularity, with over 11.6 million individuals participating and organizations raising more than $1.7 billion annually through charity sport participation events (Run Walk Ride Foundation, 2012). An increased number of alternatives created a competitive environment among charitable organizations to recruit and retain charity sport participants (Gladden, Mahony, & Apostolopoulou, 2004). The use of social media provides an opportunity for organizations to efficiently and effectively raise awareness about a cause (Waters, Burnett, Lamm, & Lucas, 2009) and build relationships with participants and alumni (Waters & Jamal, 2011), potentially creating a competitive advantage. The purpose of this study was to determine how charity sport organizations could leverage social media to enhance recruitment, retention, and future support of their organization. This study examined charity sport motives (i.e., cause, philanthropy, social, health and fitness, and sport), social media intensity of usage (i.e., high, moderate, and low), and social media consumption motivations to gain insights about maximizing future intentions (i.e., future participation intention, future support of the organization, and participants’ willingness to refer). Multiple quantitative analyses were used to examine these relationships. Data were collected from an international sample of Team in Training participants and alumni, a charity sport subset of the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society. Results yielded cause, philanthropy, social, and health and fitness-related motives as significant predictors of future intentions. Five primary motivations for social media consumption were identified (i.e., community, information, social interaction, pass time, and entertainment) and four typologies of social media users (i.e., avid, purposive, leisurely, and minimalist users) were created based on social media consumption motivations and social media intensity of usage. Further analysis revealed differences in social media typologies based on charity sport motivations and their influence on future intentions. Results of this study confirm the primary motivations of charity sport participation as well as provide an established set of social media consumption motivations in a charity sport context. In addition, the development of social media typologies provides organizations with a more holistic view of the social media consumption habits of their users as well as differences in charity sport motives and future intentions for each typology. Results demonstrate the need for sport managers to embrace social media (e.g., Bernoff & Li, 2008; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010) and engage users (e.g., King, 2013; Williams & Chin, 2010) in order to build lasting relationships with participants and facilitate offline behaviors (Valenzuela et al., 2009). In addition, results yield evidence of the need for differentiated marketing and communication strategies to effectively meet the needs of users

Keep on Running - Understanding and influencing sustained participation in recreational running

This dissertation sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of recreational running in adults. Specifically, it comprises a set of three studies that were designed to i) characterize recreational running in Portuguese adults; ii) study correlates of recreational runners (e.g. motivation, goals, consequences); and iii) explore how recreational running might be effectively promoted in the long term. Study 1 aimed to estimate the prevalence of recreational running, and explore demographic, behavioral and psychological characteristics of the “Portuguese Recreational Runner”. It characterizes runners and describes the relative importance of running for total physical activity (PA). Study 2 reflects the state of the art regarding psychological and behavioral correlates of recreational running. It suggested that intrinsic motives are key antecedents of recreational running and that mood and wellbeing are the most frequently associated outcomes. Finally, study 3 described the development of a brief, theory-based intervention, delivered in a digital format, aimed at increasing the maintenance of running behaviors over time. Additionally, results from the pilot study informs about adjustments to future interventions to improve its acceptability. The findings in this thesis highlight the importance of recreational running as a PA promotion strategy, and the need for long-term individualized approaches for its implementation. Lessons learned can inform future research initiatives, focused on testing the KoR intervention, and also recreational running promotion policies.Esta dissertação teve como objetivo ampliar a compreensão da corrida recreativa em adultos. Especificamente, integra um conjunto de três estudos que foram concebidos para i) caracterizar a corrida recreativa em adultos Portugueses; ii) estudar correlatos da corrida recreativa (p.ex., motivação, objetivos, consequências); e iii) explorar como a corrida recreativa pode ser eficazmente promovida a longo prazo. O estudo 1 teve como objetivo estimar a prevalência da corrida recreativa e explorar as características demográficas, comportamentais e psicológicas do “Corredor Recreativo Português”. Além da caracterização, revelou a importância relativa da corrida para a atividade física (AF) total. O estudo 2 reflete o estado da arte relativamente aos correlatos psicológicos e comportamentais da corrida recreativa. Sugeriu que os motivos intrínsecos são antecedentes fundamentais da corrida recreativa, e que o humor e bem-estar são os efeitos mais frequentemente associados. Finalmente, o estudo 3 descreveu o desenvolvimento de uma intervenção breve, baseada em teoria, implementada em formato digital, com o objetivo de aumentar a manutenção dos comportamentos de corrida no longo prazo. Além disso, os resultados do estudo piloto indicam alguns ajustes na intervenção, a fim de melhorar sua aceitabilidade. Os resultados desta tese destacam a importância da corrida recreativa como estratégia de promoção da AF e a necessidade de abordagens individualizadas de longo prazo para a sua implementação. As lições aprendidas podem informar futuras iniciativas de investigação, focadas em testar a intervenção KoR e, também, políticas de promoção de corrida recreativa

Social Media and the Effect on Social Comparison, Recovery, and Motivation Measures in High-Intensity Functional Fitness Athletes (HIFT)

The use of social media in high-intensity functional fitness (HIFT) athletes facilitated social comparisons that affected recovery and motivation. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to use social comparison theory to investigate the impact that short workout videos had on heart rate (HR), heart rate recovery (HRR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), perceived recovery status (PRS) and time to completion. Methods:Thirty-three individuals who identified as HIFT athletes participated in this study (age: 30.45 years ± 6.59, height: 169.41cm ± 8.69, weight: 73.07 kg ± 13.65). The participants were made up of 57.6% (n=19) female and 42.4% (n=14). Participants were randomized and put through three conditions of a control, elite athlete video and recreational athlete videos which were shown before completing a HIFT workout of: 3 rounds of 10 pull-ups, 15 push-ups, 20 sit-ups, and 25 air-squat. The following data was collected between each round: HR, HRR, RPE, PRS, and time. Athletes were asked to fill out the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale to assess social comparison during the treatment conditions. Descriptive statistics were run to determine means and standard deviations for all data. The data was checked for normality. Questionnaires were analyzed for reliability and scores were compared using dependent samples t-test. A repeated measures ANOVA was run between total averages using an alpha level of .05 and between rounds with Bonferroni correction using an alpha level of .002. Results: Significant differences in social comparison were found in the elite video condition (3.68 ± .62, p= .046) while RPE showed significant differences in the elite video condition (14.41 ± 1.84, p=.023). Time to completion showed significant differences in both conditions of recreational (11.25 mins ± 1.22, p \u3c .001) and elite (11.15 mins ±1.28, p = .011) as well as in between round comparisons (p \u3c .001) with participants finishing 8.4 seconds faster in the recreational video condition. Conclusion: Social comparison during exercise is used as a motivator to push athletes. Social comparison during exercise is possible and further investigation should be completed to understand the effects on physiological and psychological measurements in high-intensity exercise

An exploration of the aspects of physical activity and exercise motives that confer risk versus protection from disordered eating outcomes

A long-standing health initiative has been the recommendation for individuals to engage in regular physical activity because of its numerous physical and mental health benefits. However, engaging in “excessive exercise” is a compensatory behavior found in eating disorders. The present study sought to better understand exercise as both a health- and risk-behavior. Undergraduates (N = 1010) completed an online survey assessing disordered eating and exercise behavior. Results revealed that among individuals who engaged in a low level of physical activity, exercising for socializing reasons conferred risk for disordered eating, whereas higher socializing exercise motives were associated with lower disordered eating behavior. Findings suggest that it may be particularly useful to know how often individuals engage in exercise when they have high socializing motives. Future research should examine the Exercise Benefits/Barriers Scale (EBBS) to investigate individuals’ simultaneous reasons for engaging in exercise and barriers to participating in exercise

Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

A Comparison of Motivational Differences Among Older Marathon Runners and Their Injury Status

Despite the high occurrence of running-related injuries, master level runners, those aged 40 years and older, account for 50% of all marathon finishers. What is not known is the common motive sustaining participation, especially among this age demographic. The self-determination theory was the theoretical framework to support how behavior is regulated by the individual. The purpose of this quantitative research was to identify a difference in the motives (psychological, physical, social, and achievement) and their subcategorical motives (health orientation, weight concern, affiliation, recognition, psychological coping, life meaning, self-esteem, competition, and personal goals) via the Motivations of Marathoners Scales by master level runners according to their injury status and gender. Two hundred and twenty-five master level runners from social media marathon running groups completed the online survey. The responses were analyzed using an independent-samples t test and an ANOVA. The results showed female master level runners statistically significant in psychological coping, life meaning, self-esteem, health orientation, weight concern, and affiliation which contributed to psychological, physical, and social motives while male master level runners were statistically significant only in the subcategory of competition. The implications for positive social change include a better understanding of motivation, its sustainment, and the adherence of physical activity behaviors to improve the positive influence among the current beliefs about aging and activity for better health of individuals and their communities

Understanding the Potential of Sport for Promoting Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Insufficient physical activity is considered a global public health challenge. This thesis highlights that, for middle-aged and older adults, sport participation is associated with a wide range of psychosocial benefits. Then, the thesis offers insight into the potential of walking sport programmes to promote health-enhancing physical activity in middle-aged and older adults. Recommendations are provided to promote the appeal, feasibility, and sustainability of walking sport programmes in community-based settings