Energy efficiency in short and wide-area IoT technologies—A survey

In the last years, the Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a key application context in the design and evolution of technologies in the transition toward a 5G ecosystem. More and more IoT technologies have entered the market and represent important enablers in the deployment of networks of interconnected devices. As network and spatial device densities grow, energy efficiency and consumption are becoming an important aspect in analyzing the performance and suitability of different technologies. In this framework, this survey presents an extensive review of IoT technologies, including both Low-Power Short-Area Networks (LPSANs) and Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs), from the perspective of energy efficiency and power consumption. Existing consumption models and energy efficiency mechanisms are categorized, analyzed and discussed, in order to highlight the main trends proposed in literature and standards toward achieving energy-efficient IoT networks. Current limitations and open challenges are also discussed, aiming at highlighting new possible research directions

Security protocol based on random key generation for an Rfid system

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a technology, which describes the transmission of unique information by a wireless device, over Radio waves, when prompted or read by a compatible reader; The basic components in implementing RFID are RFID tags which are small microchips attached to a radio antenna, mounted on a substrate, and a wireless transceiver/reader that queries the RFID tags; This thesis deals with research issues related to security aspects in the communication between an RFID tag and its reader. More precisely, it deals with a new, simple and efficient security protocol based on an encryption that uses the concept of regular public key regeneration, which can be effortlessly adopted in an RFID application

ANALYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURE TO DESCRIBE ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF SENSOR NETWORKS

Collections of several hundred, thousands, or even millions of small devices scattered or placed throughout an area monitoring the environment called sensor networks have several useful applications. Until recently, the economic cost of development, manufacture, and deployment limited the use of sensor networks to military and government applications. Recent advances in technology provide a means for economical development, deployment, and manufacture of sensor networks.Current methodology designs, then implements and simulates the sensor network, then goes back and redesigns to better meet the specifications. The model developed in this dissertation provides an early indication of what types of solutions will meet the requirements and what types of solutions will not. With this ability, the time required for simulation and proof of concept is reduced, allowing more time and money for design and testing of the real world system. The model developed characterizes the energy consumption of a sensor or RFID network as a whole is extremely beneficial and is needed. The model provides a means to benchmark different types of sensor networks (i.e. different protocols, hardware, software) and to determine which type is the better solution. A model such as this removes the requirement to develop a simulation to compare different types. Using the model reduces the time (and save money) needed to verify the solution and helps with development as multiple designs can be quickly tested and compared possibly at a much earlier stage in the development cycle allowing a thorough investigation of different design alternatives

Routing in heterogeneous wireless ad hoc networks

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2008.Includes bibliographical references (p. 135-146).Wireless ad hoc networks are used in several applications ranging from infrastructure monitoring to providing Internet connectivity to remote locations. A common assumption about these networks is that the devices that form the network are homogeneous in their capabilities. However in reality, the networks can be heterogeneous in the capabilities of the devices. The main contribution of this thesis is the identification of issues for efficient communication in heterogeneous networks and the proposed solutions to these issues. The first part of the thesis deals with the issues of unambiguous classification of devices and device identification in ad hoc networks. A taxonomical approach is developed, which allows devices with wide range of capabilities to be classified on the basis of their functionality. Once classified, devices are characterized on the basis of different attributes. An IPv6 identification scheme and two routing services based on this scheme that allow object-object communication are developed. The identification scheme is extended to a multi-addressing scheme for wireless ad hoc networks. These two issues and the developed solutions are applicable to a broad range of heterogeneous networks. The second part of the thesis deals with heterogeneous networks consisting of omnidirectional and directional antennas. A new MAC protocol for directional antennas, request-to-pause-directional-MAC (RTP-DMAC) protocol is developed that solves the deafness issue, which is common in networks with directional antennas. Three new routing metrics, which are extensions to the expected number of transmissions (ETX) metric are developed. The first metric, ETX1, reduces the route length by increasing the transmission power. The routing and MAC layers assume the presence of bidirectional links for their proper operation. However networks with omnidirectional and directional antennas have unidirectional links. The other two metrics, unidirectional-ETX (U-ETX) and unidirectional-ETX1 (U-ETX1), increase the transmission power of the directional nodes so that the unidirectional links appear as bidirectional links at the MAC and the routing layers. The performance of these metrics in different scenarios is evaluated.by Sivaram M.S.L. Cheekiralla.Ph.D

Design and Analysis of Security Schemes for Low-cost RFID Systems

With the remarkable progress in microelectronics and low-power semiconductor technologies, Radio Frequency IDentification technology (RFID) has moved from obscurity into mainstream applications, which essentially provides an indispensable foundation to realize ubiquitous computing and machine perception. However, the catching and exclusive characteristics of RFID systems introduce growing security and privacy concerns. To address these issues are particularly challenging for low-cost RFID systems, where tags are extremely constrained in resources, power and cost. The primary reasons are: (1) the security requirements of low-cost RFID systems are even more rigorous due to large operation range and mass deployment; and (2) the passive tags' modest capabilities and the necessity to keep their prices low present a novel problem that goes beyond the well-studied problems of traditional cryptography. This thesis presents our research results on the design and the analysis of security schemes for low-cost RFID systems. Motivated by the recent attention on exploiting physical layer resources in the design of security schemes, we investigate how to solve the eavesdropping, modification and one particular type of relay attacks toward the tag-to-reader communication in passive RFID systems without requiring lightweight ciphers. To this end, we propose a novel physical layer scheme, called Backscatter modulation- and Uncoordinated frequency hopping-assisted Physical Layer Enhancement (BUPLE). The idea behind it is to use the amplitude of the carrier to transmit messages as normal, while to utilize its periodically varied frequency to hide the transmission from the eavesdropper/relayer and to exploit a random sequence modulated to the carrier's phase to defeat malicious modifications. We further improve its eavesdropping resistance through the coding in the physical layer, since BUPLE ensures that the tag-to-eavesdropper channel is strictly noisier than the tag-to-reader channel. Three practical Wiretap Channel Codes (WCCs) for passive tags are then proposed: two of them are constructed from linear error correcting codes, and the other one is constructed from a resilient vector Boolean function. The security and usability of BUPLE in conjunction with WCCs are further confirmed by our proof-of-concept implementation and testing. Eavesdropping the communication between a legitimate reader and a victim tag to obtain raw data is a basic tool for the adversary. However, given the fundamentality of eavesdropping attacks, there are limited prior work investigating its intension and extension for passive RFID systems. To this end, we firstly identified a brand-new attack, working at physical layer, against backscattered RFID communications, called unidirectional active eavesdropping, which defeats the customary impression that eavesdropping is a ``passive" attack. To launch this attack, the adversary transmits an un-modulated carrier (called blank carrier) at a certain frequency while a valid reader and a tag interacts at another frequency channel. Once the tag modulates the amplitude of reader's signal, it causes fluctuations on the blank carrier as well. By carefully examining the amplitude of the backscattered versions of the blank carrier and the reader's carrier, the adversary could intercept the ongoing reader-tag communication with either significantly lower bit error rate or from a significantly greater distance away. Our concept is demonstrated and empirically analyzed towards a popular low-cost RFID system, i.e., EPC Gen2. Although active eavesdropping in general is not trivial to be prohibited, for a particular type of active eavesdropper, namely a greedy proactive eavesdropper, we propose a simple countermeasure without introducing extra cost to current RFID systems. The needs of cryptographic primitives on constraint devices keep increasing with the growing pervasiveness of these devices. One recent design of the lightweight block cipher is Hummingbird-2. We study its cryptographic strength under a novel technique we developed, called Differential Sequence Attack (DSA), and present the first cryptanalytic result on this cipher. In particular, our full attack can be divided into two phases: preparation phase and key recovery phase. During the key recovery phase, we exploit the fact that the differential sequence for the last round of Hummingbird-2 can be retrieved by querying the full cipher, due to which, the search space of the secret key can be significantly reduced. Thus, by attacking the encryption (decryption resp.) of Hummingbird-2, our algorithm recovers 36-bit (another 28-bit resp.) out of 128-bit key with $2^{68}$ ($2^{60}$ resp.) time complexity if particular differential conditions of the internal states and of the keys at one round can be imposed. Additionally, the rest 64-bit of the key can be exhaustively searched and the overall time complexity is dominated by $2^{68}$. During the preparation phase, by investing $2^{81}$ effort in time, the adversary is able to create the differential conditions required in the key recovery phase with at least 0.5 probability. As an additional effort, we examine the cryptanalytic strength of another lightweight candidate known as A2U2, which is the most lightweight cryptographic primitive proposed so far for low-cost tags. Our chosen-plaintext-attack fully breaks this cipher by recovering its secret key with only querying the encryption twice on the victim tag and solving 32 sparse systems of linear equations (where each system has 56 unknowns and around 28 unknowns can be directly obtained without computation) in the worst case, which takes around 0.16 second on a Thinkpad T410 laptop

Collective Communications and Computation Mechanisms on the RF Channel for Organic Printed Smart Labels and Resource-limited IoT Nodes

Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are seen as enabler technologies for realizing the Internet of Things (IoT). Organic and printed Electronics (OE) has the potential to provide low cost and all-printable smart RFID labels in high volumes. With regard to WSN, power harvesting techniques and resource-efficient communications are promising key technologies to create sustainable and for the environment friendly sensing devices. However, the implementation of OE smart labels is only allowing printable devices of ultra-low hardware complexity, that cannot employ standard RFID communications. And, the deployment of current WSN technology is far away from offering battery-free and low-cost sensing technology. To this end, the steady growth of IoT is increasing the demand for more network capacity and computational power. With respect to wireless communications research, the state-of-the-art employs superimposed radio transmission in form of physical layer network coding and computation over the MAC to increase information flow and computational power, but lacks on practicability and robustness so far. With regard to these research challenges we developed in particular two approaches, i.e., code-based Collective Communications for dense sensing environments, and time-based Collective Communications (CC) for resource-limited WSNs. In respect to the code-based CC approach we exploit the principle of superimposed radio transmission to acquire highly scalable and robust communications obtaining with it at the same time as well minimalistic smart RFID labels, that can be manufactured in high volume with present-day OE. The implementation of our code-based CC relies on collaborative and simultaneous transmission of randomly drawn burst sequences encoding the data. Based on the framework of hyper-dimensional computing, statistical laws and the superposition principle of radio waves we obtained the communication of so called ensemble information, meaning the concurrent bulk reading of sensed values, ranges, quality rating, identifiers (IDs), and so on. With 21 transducers on a small-scale reader platform we tested the performance of our approach successfully proving the scalability and reliability. To this end, we implemented our code-based CC mechanism into an all-printable passive RFID label down to the logic gate level, indicating a circuit complexity of about 500 transistors. In respect to time-based CC approach we utilize the superimposed radio transmission to obtain resource-limited WSNs, that can be deployed in wide areas for establishing, e.g., smart environments. In our application scenario for resource-limited WSN, we utilize the superimposed radio transmission to calculate functions of interest, i.e., to accomplish data processing directly on the radio channel. To prove our concept in a case study, we created a WSN with 15 simple nodes measuring the environmental mean temperature. Based on our analysis about the wireless computation error we were able to minimize the stochastic error arbitrarily, and to remove the systematic error completely

Enabling technologies and cyber-physical systems for mission-critical scenarios

Programa Oficial de Doutoramento en Tecnoloxías da Información e Comunicacións en Redes Móbiles . 5029P01[Abstract] Reliable transport systems, defense, public safety and quality assurance in the Industry 4.0 are essential in a modern society. In a mission-critical scenario, a mission failure would jeopardize human lives and put at risk some other assets whose impairment or loss would significantly harm society or business results. Even small degradations of the communications supporting the mission could have large and possibly dire consequences. On the one hand, mission-critical organizations wish to utilize the most modern, disruptive and innovative communication systems and technologies, and yet, on the other hand, need to comply with strict requirements, which are very different to those of non critical scenarios. The aim of this thesis is to assess the feasibility of applying emerging technologies like Internet of Things (IoT), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) and 4G broadband communications in mission-critical scenarios along three key critical infrastructure sectors: transportation, defense and public safety, and shipbuilding. Regarding the transport sector, this thesis provides an understanding of the progress of communications technologies used for railways since the implantation of Global System for Mobile communications-Railways (GSM-R). The aim of this work is to envision the potential contribution of Long Term Evolution (LTE) to provide additional features that GSM-R would never support. Furthermore, the ability of Industrial IoT for revolutionizing the railway industry and confront today's challenges is presented. Moreover, a detailed review of the most common flaws found in Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) based IoT systems is presented, including the latest attacks described in the literature. As a result, a novel methodology for auditing security and reverse engineering RFID communications in transport applications is introduced. The second sector selected is driven by new operational needs and the challenges that arise from modern military deployments. The strategic advantages of 4G broadband technologies massively deployed in civil scenarios are examined. Furthermore, this thesis analyzes the great potential for applying IoT technologies to revolutionize modern warfare and provide benefits similar to those in industry. It identifies scenarios where defense and public safety could leverage better commercial IoT capabilities to deliver greater survivability to the warfighter or first responders, while reducing costs and increasing operation efficiency and effectiveness. The last part is devoted to the shipbuilding industry. After defining the novel concept of Shipyard 4.0, how a shipyard pipe workshop works and what are the requirements for building a smart pipe system are described in detail. Furthermore, the foundations for enabling an affordable CPS for Shipyards 4.0 are presented. The CPS proposed consists of a network of beacons that continuously collect information about the location of the pipes. Its design allows shipyards to obtain more information on the pipes and to make better use of it. Moreover, it is indicated how to build a positioning system from scratch in an environment as harsh in terms of communications as a shipyard, showing an example of its architecture and implementation.[Resumen] En la sociedad moderna, los sistemas de transporte fiables, la defensa, la seguridad pública y el control de la calidad en la Industria 4.0 son esenciales. En un escenario de misión crítica, el fracaso de una misión pone en peligro vidas humanas y en riesgo otros activos cuyo deterioro o pérdida perjudicaría significativamente a la sociedad o a los resultados de una empresa. Incluso pequeñas degradaciones en las comunicaciones que apoyan la misión podrían tener importantes y posiblemente terribles consecuencias. Por un lado, las organizaciones de misión crítica desean utilizar los sistemas y tecnologías de comunicación más modernos, disruptivos e innovadores y, sin embargo, deben cumplir requisitos estrictos que son muy diferentes a los relativos a escenarios no críticos. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es evaluar la viabilidad de aplicar tecnologías emergentes como Internet of Things (IoT), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) y comunicaciones de banda ancha 4G en escenarios de misión crítica en tres sectores clave de infraestructura crítica: transporte, defensa y seguridad pública, y construcción naval. Respecto al sector del transporte, esta tesis permite comprender el progreso de las tecnologías de comunicación en el ámbito ferroviario desde la implantación de Global System for Mobile communications-Railway (GSM-R). El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la contribución potencial de Long Term Evolution (LTE) para proporcionar características adicionales que GSM-R nunca podría soportar. Además, se presenta la capacidad de la IoT industrial para revolucionar la industria ferroviaria y afrontar los retos actuales. Asimismo, se estudian con detalle las vulnerabilidades más comunes de los sistemas IoT basados en Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID), incluyendo los últimos ataques descritos en la literatura. Como resultado, se presenta una metodología innovadora para realizar auditorías de seguridad e ingeniería inversa de las comunicaciones RFID en aplicaciones de transporte. El segundo sector elegido viene impulsado por las nuevas necesidades operacionales y los desafíos que surgen de los despliegues militares modernos. Para afrontarlos, se analizan las ventajas estratégicas de las tecnologías de banda ancha 4G masivamente desplegadas en escenarios civiles. Asimismo, esta tesis analiza el gran potencial de aplicación de las tecnologías IoT para revolucionar la guerra moderna y proporcionar beneficios similares a los alcanzados por la industria. Se identifican escenarios en los que la defensa y la seguridad pública podrían aprovechar mejor las capacidades comerciales de IoT para ofrecer una mayor capacidad de supervivencia al combatiente o a los servicios de emergencias, a la vez que reduce los costes y aumenta la eficiencia y efectividad de las operaciones. La última parte se dedica a la industria de construcción naval. Después de definir el novedoso concepto de Astillero 4.0, se describe en detalle cómo funciona el taller de tubería de astillero y cuáles son los requisitos para construir un sistema de tuberías inteligentes. Además, se presentan los fundamentos para posibilitar un CPS asequible para Astilleros 4.0. El CPS propuesto consiste en una red de balizas que continuamente recogen información sobre la ubicación de las tuberías. Su diseño permite a los astilleros obtener más información sobre las tuberías y hacer un mejor uso de las mismas. Asimismo, se indica cómo construir un sistema de posicionamiento desde cero en un entorno tan hostil en términos de comunicaciones, mostrando un ejemplo de su arquitectura e implementación

Ambient intelligence in buildings : design and development of an interoperable Internet of Things platform

During many years, people and governments have been warned about the increasing levels of pollution and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions that are endangering our lives on this planet. The Information and Communication Technology sector, usually known as the ICT sector, responsible for the computerization of the society, has been pinpointed as one of the most important sectors contributing to such a problem. Many efforts, however, have been put to shift the trend towards the utilization of renewable resources, such as wind or solar power. Even though governments have agreed to follow this path and avoid the usage of non-renewable energies, it is not enough. Although the ICT sector might seem an added problem due to the number of connected devices, technology improvements and hardware optimization enable new ways of fighting against global warming and GHG emissions. The aforementioned computerization has forced companies to evolve their work into a computer-assisted one. Due to this, companies are now forced to establish their main headquarters inside buildings for work coordination, connection and management. Due to this, buildings are becoming one of the most important issues regarding energy consumption. In order to cope with such problem, the Internet of Things (IoT) offers new paradigms and alternatives for leading the change. IoT is commonly defined as the network of physical and virtual objects that are capable of collecting surrounding data and exchanging it between them or through the Internet. Thanks to these networks, it is possible to monitor any thinkable metric inside buildings, and, then, utilize this information to build efficient automated systems, commonly known as Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS), capable of extracting conclusions on how to optimally and efficiently manage the resources of the building. ICT companies have foreseen this market opportunity that, paired with the appearance of smaller, efficient and more durable sensors, allows the development of efficient IoT systems. However, the lack of agreement and standardization creates chaos inside IoT, and the horizontal connectivity between such systems is still a challenge. Moreover, the vast amount of data to process requires the utilization of Big Data techniques to guarantee close to real-time responses. This thesis initially presents a standard Cloud-based IoT architecture that tries to cope with the aforementioned problems by employing a Cloud middleware that obfuscates the underlying hardware architecture and permits the aggregation of data from multiple heterogeneous sources. Also, sensor information is exposed to any third-party client after authentication. The utilization of automated IoT systems for managing building resources requires high reliability, resilience, and availability. The loss of sensor data is not permitted due to the negative consequences it might have, such as disruptive resource management. For this, it is mandatory to grant backup options to sensor networks in order to guarantee correct functioning in case of partial network disconnections. Additionally, the placement of the sensors inside the building must guarantee minimal energy consumption while fulfilling sensing requirements. Finally, a building resource management use case is presented by means of a simulation tool. The tool draws on occupants' probabilistic models and environmental condition models for actuating upon building elements to ensure optimal and efficient functioning. Occupants' comfort is also taken into consideration and the trade-off between the two metrics is studied. All the presented work is meant to deliver insights and tools for current and future IoT system implementations by setting the basis for standardization agreements yet to happen.Durant molts anys, s'ha alertat a la població i als governs sobre l'increment en els nivells de pol·lució i d'emissió de gasos d'efecte hivernacle, que estan posant en perill la nostra vida a la Terra. El sector de les Tecnologies de la Informació i Comunicació, normalment conegut com les TIC, responsable de la informatització de la societat, ha estat senyalat com un dels sectors més importants encarregat d'agreujar tal problema. Però, molt esforç s'està posant per revertir aquesta situació mitjançant l'ús de recursos renovables, com l'energia eòlica o solar. Tot i que els governs han acordat seguir dit camí i evitar l'ús d'energia no renovable tant com sigui possible, no és suficient per erradicar el problema. Encara que el sector de les TIC pugui semblar un problema afegit donada la gran quantitat i l'increment de dispositius connectats, les millores en tecnologia i en hardware estan habilitant noves maneres de lluitar contra l'escalfament global i l'emissió de gasos d'efecte hivernacle. La informatització, anteriorment mencionada, ha forçat a les empreses a evolucionar el seu model de negoci cap a un més enfocat a la utilització de xarxes d'ordinadors per gestionar els seus recursos. Per això, dites companyies s'estan veient forçades a establir les seves seus centrals dintre d'edificis, per tenir un major control sobre la coordinació, connexió i maneig dels seus recursos. Això està provocant un augment en el consum energètic dels edificis, que s'estan convertint en un dels principals problemes. Per poder fer front al problema, la Internet de les Coses o Internet of Things (IoT) ofereix nous paradigmes i alternatives per liderar el canvi. IoT es defineix com la xarxa d'objectes físics i virtuals, capaços de recol·lectar la informació per construir sistemes automatitzats, coneguts com a Sistemes de Gestió Energètica per Edificis, capaços d'extreure conclusions sobre com utilitzar de manera eficient i òptima els recursos de l'edifici. Companyies pertanyents a les TIC han previst aquesta oportunitat de mercat que, en sincronia amb l'aparició de sensors més petits, eficients i duradors, permeten el desenvolupament de sistemes IoT eficients. Però, la falta d'acord en quant a l'estandardització de dits sistemes està creant un escenari caòtic, ja que s'està fent impossible la connectivitat horitzontal entre dits sistemes. A més, la gran quantitat de dades a processar requereix la utilització de tècniques de Big Data per poder garantir respostes en temps acceptables. Aquesta tesi presenta, inicialment, una arquitectura IoT estàndard basada en la Neu, que tracta de fer front als problemes anteriorment presentats mitjançant l'ús d'un middleware allotjat a la Neu que ofusca l'arquitectura hardware subjacent i permet l'agregació de la informació originada des de múltiples fonts heterogènies. A més, la informació dels sensors s'exposa perquè qualsevol client de tercers pugui consultar-la, després d'haver-se autenticat. La utilització de sistemes IoT automatitzats per gestionar els recursos dels edificis requereix un alt nivell de fiabilitat, resistència i disponibilitat. La perduda d'informació no està permesa degut a les conseqüències negatives que podría suposar, com una mala presa de decisions. Per això, és obligatori atorgar opcions de backup a les xarxes de sensors per garantir un correcte funcionament inclús quan es produeixen desconnexions parcials de la xarxa. Addicionalment, la col·locació dels sensors dintre de l'edifici ha de garantir un consum energètic mínim dintre de les restriccions de desplegament imposades. Finalment, presentem un cas d'ús d'un Sistema de Gestió Energètica per Edificis mitjançant una eina de simulació. Dita eina utilitza com informació d'entrada models probabilístics sobre les accions dels ocupants i models sobre la condició ambiental per actuar sobre els elements de l'edifici i garantir un funcionament òptim i eficient. A més, el confort dels ocupants també es considera com mètrica a optimitzar. Donada la impossibilitat d’optimitzar les dues mètriques de manera conjunta, aquesta tesi també presenta un estudi sobre el trade-off que existeix entre elles. Tot el treball presentat està pensat per atorgar idees i eines pels sistemes IoT actuals i futurs, i assentar les bases per l’estandardització que encara està per arribar.Durante muchos años, se ha alertado a la población y a los gobiernos acerca del incremento en los niveles de polución y de emisión de gases de efecto invernadero, que están poniendo en peligro nuestra vida en la Tierra. El sector de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación, normalmente conocido como las TIC, responsable de la informatización de la sociedad, ha sido señalada como uno de los sectores más importantes encargado de agravar tal problema. Sin embargo, mucho esfuerzo se está poniendo para revertir esta situación mediante el uso de recursos renovables, como la energía eólica o solar. A pesar de que los gobiernos han acordado seguir dicho camino y evitar el uso de energía no renovable tanto como sea posible, no es suficiente para erradicar el problema. Aunque el sector de las TIC pueda parecer un problema añadido dada la gran cantidad y el incremento de dispositivos conectados, las mejoras en tecnología y en hardware están habilitando nuevas maneras de luchar contra el calentamiento global y la emisión de gases de efecto invernadero. Durante las últimas décadas, compañías del sector público y privado conscientes del problema han centrado sus esfuerzos en la creación de soluciones orientadas a la eficiencia energética tanto a nivel de hardware como de software. Las nuevas redes troncales están siendo creadas con dispositivos eficientes y los proveedores de servicios de Internet tienden a crear sistemas conscientes de la energía para su optimización dentro de su dominio. Siguiendo esta tendencia, cualquier nuevo sistema creado y añadido a la red debe garantizar un cierto nivel de conciencia y un manejo óptimo de los recursos que utiliza. La informatización, anteriormente mencionada, ha forzado a las empresas a evolucionar su modelo de negocio hacia uno más enfocado en la utilización de redes de ordenadores para gestionar sus recursos. Por eso, dichas compañías se están viendo forzadas a establecer sus sedes centrales dentro de edificios, para tener un mayor control sobre la coordinación, conexión y manejo de sus recursos. Esto está provocando un aumento en el consumo energético de los edificios, que se están convirtiendo en uno de los principales problemas. Para poder hacer frente al problema, el Internet de las Cosas o Internet of Things (IoT) ofrece nuevos paradigmas y alternativas para liderar el cambio. IoT se define como la red de objetos físicos y virtuales, capaces de recolectar la información del entorno e intercambiarla entre los propios objetos o a través de Internet. Gracias a estas redes, es posible monitorizar cualquier métrica que podamos imaginar dentro de un edificio, y, después, utilizar dicha información para construir sistemas automatizados, conocidos como Sistemas de Gestión Energética para Edificios, capaces de extraer conclusiones sobre cómo utilizar de manera eficiente y óptima los recursos del edificio. Compañías pertenecientes a las TIC han previsto esta oportunidad de mercado que, en sincronía con la aparición de sensores más pequeños, eficientes y duraderos, permite el desarrollo de sistemas IoT eficientes. Sin embargo, la falta de acuerdo en cuanto a la estandarización de dichos sistemas está creando un escenario caótico, ya que se hace imposible la conectividad horizontal entre dichos sistemas. Además, la gran cantidad de datos a procesar requiere la utilización de técnicas de Big Data para poder garantizar respuestas en tiempos aceptables. Esta tesis presenta, inicialmente, una arquitectura IoT estándar basada en la Nube que trata de hacer frente a los problemas anteriormente presentados mediante el uso de un middleware alojado en la Nube que ofusca la arquitectura hardware subyacente y permite la agregación de la información originada des de múltiples fuentes heterogéneas. Además, la información de los sensores se expone para que cualquier cliente de terceros pueda consultarla, después de haberse autenticado. La utilización de sistemas IoT automatizados para manejar los recursos de los edificios requiere un alto nivel de fiabilidad, resistencia y disponibilidad. La pérdida de información no está permitida debido a las consecuencias negativas que podría suponer, como una mala toma de decisiones. Por eso, es obligatorio otorgar opciones de backup a las redes de sensores para garantizar su correcto funcionamiento incluso cuando se producen desconexiones parciales de la red. Adicionalmente, la colocación de los sensores dentro del edificio debe garantizar un consumo energético mínimo dentro de las restricciones de despliegue impuestas. En esta tesis, mejoramos el problema de colocación de los sensores para redes heterogéneas de sensores inalámbricos añadiendo restricciones de clustering o agrupamiento, para asegurar que cada tipo de sensor es capaz de obtener su métrica correspondiente, y restricciones de protección mediante la habilitación de rutas de transmisión secundarias. En cuanto a grandes redes homogéneas de sensores inalámbricos, esta tesis estudia aumentar su resiliencia mediante la identificación de los sensores más críticos. Finalmente, presentamos un caso de uso de un Sistema de Gestión Energética para Edificios mediante una herramienta de simulación. Dicha herramienta utiliza como información de entrada modelos probabilísticos sobre las acciones de los ocupantes y modelos sobre la condición ambiental para actuar sobre los elementos del edificio y garantizar un funcionamiento óptimo y eficiente. Además, el comfort de los ocupantes también se considera como métrica a optimizar. Dada la imposibilidad de optimizar las dos métricas de manera conjunta, esta tesis también presenta un estudio sobre el trade-off que existe entre ellas. Todo el trabajo presentado está pensado para otorgar ideas y herramientas para los sistemas IoT actuales y futuros, y asentar las bases para la estandarización que todavía está por llegar.Postprint (published version

Security issues in Internet of Things

The main idea behind the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) is to connect all kinds of everyday objects, thus enabling them to communicate to each other and enabling people to communicate to them. IoT is an extensive concept that encompasses a wide range of technologies and applications. This document gives an introduction to what the IoT is, its fundamental characteristics and the enabling technologies that are currently being used. However, the technologies for the IoT are still evolving and maturing, leading to major challenges that need to be solved for a successful deployment of the IoT. Security is one of the most significant ones. Security issues may represent the greatest obstacle to general acceptance of the IoT. This document presents an assessment of the IoT security goals, its threats and the security requirements to achieve the goals. A survey on a representative set of already deployed IoT technologies is done to assess the current state of the art with regards to security. For each solution, a description of its functionality, its security options and the issues found in the literature is given. Finally, the common issues are identified and a set of future solutions are given.La idea principal detrás del concepto de Internet de las cosas (IoT) es conectar todo tipo de objetos cotidianos, para permitir comunicarse entre sí y que personas se comuniquen con ellos. IoT es un amplio concepto que abarca una extensa gama de tecnologías y aplicaciones. Este documento da una introducción a lo que es el IoT, sus características fundamentales y las tecnologías que se están utilizando actualmente. Sin embargo, las tecnologías usadas en el IoT todavía están en evolución y madurando, dando lugar a grandes desafíos que deben resolverse para un despliegue exitoso del IoT. La seguridad es uno de las más significativos. Los problemas de seguridad pueden representar el mayor obstáculo para la aceptación general del IoT. Este documento presenta una evaluación de los objetivos de seguridad en el IoT, sus amenazas y los requisitos necesarios para alcanzar dichos objetivos. Se realiza un estudio sobre un conjunto representativo de tecnologías IoT en uso para evaluar su estado actual respecto a la seguridad. Para cada solución, se da una descripción de su funcionalidad, sus protecciones y los problemas encontrados. Finalmente, se identifican los problemas comunes y se dan un conjunto de soluciones futuras.La idea principal darrera del concepte d'Internet de les coses (IoT) és connectar tot tipus d'objectes quotidians, per permetre comunicar-se entre sí i que les persones es comuniquin amb ells. IoT és un ampli concepte que engloba una extensa gamma de tecnologies i aplicacions. Aquest document dona una introducció al que és el IoT, les seves característiques fonamentals i les tecnologies que s'estan utilitzant actualment. No obstant, les tecnologies utilitzades en el IoT encara estan evolucionant i madurant, donant lloc a grans reptes que s'han de resoldre per a un desplegament exitós del IoT. La seguretat és un dels reptes més significatius. Els problemes de seguretat poden representar el major obstacle per l'acceptació general de l'IoT. Aquest document presenta una avaluació dels objectius de seguretat en el Iot, les seves amenaces i els requisits necessaris per assolir aquests objectius. Es realitza un estudi sobre un conjunt representatiu de tecnologies IoT en ús per avaluar el seu estat actual respecte a la seguretat. Per cada solució, es dona una descripció de la seva funcionalitat, les seves proteccions i els problemes trobats. Finalment, s'identifiquen els problemes comuns i es donen un conjunt de solucions futures

La projection d'usage des TICs : la composition de fictions axiomatiques au service de la recherche technologique

Innovation is today a major and strategic asset for organisations that compete in a hypercompetitive world (D'Avenir & Gunther, 1994). They are trying to face these new challenges, by using a diversity of “expert systems” typical of our « advanced modernity » (Giddens, 1990). Amongst those, boosting R&D activities is major inputs that demand the use of different expertises. Speculative researches for innovation are one of them. They take place in the “Fuzzy Front End” of innovation, a place where the construction of the social reality of invention is made : its usage, or to be more precise, its projection. Our thesis examines these knowledge-producing technologies and tries to make understable the policies at work, the performance of embedded collectives on the innovation itself, and on themselves, and the arrangements made during this process. Our work in the Grenoble industrial area and collaboration with the CEA-LETI helped us to propose an understanding of these projections as compositions of axiomatic fictions for technological research. Analysing the concept of usage, we highlight its careers and the mutation of associated practices. Interrogating one form of projection, the scenario, we show the links that lie between fiction and perfomativity. By leaning on the project mutating components, we demonstrate the axiomatic character of the projection, understood as a form of answer made to a social demand that comes from different places, and whose necessity of actionnable knowledge is solved by composing with moving data.L'« hypercompétitivité » (D'Avenir & Gunther, 1994) qui caractérise notre environnement économique contemporain fait de l'innovation une préoccupation stratégique pour les organisations. Celles-ci tentent de répondre à cette injonction par le recours à une multitude de « systèmes experts », caractéristique de la « modernité avancée » (Giddens, 1990). Parmi ceux-ci, la stimulation des activités de R&D est reconnue comme une contribution majeure qui nécessite l'utilisation croissante de champs d'expertises variés. C'est dans ce contexte que les sciences sociales sont mobilisées comme forme d'expertise contributives des « recherches spéculatives pour l'innovation » (Stewart & Claeys, 2009). Ces recherches interviennent en amont de processus d'innovation, en un lieu nommé « Fuzzy Front End » (Smith & Reinertsen, 1995), lieu dans lequel se forge la construction de la réalité sociale de l'invention : son usage ou plutôt sa projection. Notre thèse s'interroge sur ces technologies de production de connaissances que sont les projections d'usage et ambitionne de rendre intelligibles les politiques qu'elles mettent en oeuvre, la performance des collectifs mobilisés sur les recherches et sur eux-mêmes ainsi que les arrangements déployés par les acteurs durant ces processus. Notre immersion dans le tissu industriel grenoblois, et en particulier dans l'environnement du CEA-LETI, nous a permis de proposer une lecture des projections d'usage comme des compositions de fictions axiomatiques au service de la recherche technologique. En scrutant le concept d'usage, nous mettons en lumière les carrières empruntées par celui-ci et les mutations des pratiques associées. En interrogeant l'une des formes de la projection d'usage, le scénario, nous mettons en évidence les liens entre performativité et recours à la fiction. En interrogeant les mutations des composantes du projet, nous démontrons le caractère axiomatique des projections, en tant que forme de réponse à une demande sociale qui émane de plusieurs endroits et dont l'exigence de production de savoirs actionnables nécessite de composer avec des données en mouvement