Dynamics and interactions of nuclear proteins revealed by quantitative photobleaching microscopy

Tese de doutoramento em Biofísica (Biofísica), apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa através da Faculdade de Ciências, 2007The nucleus is a complex cellular organelle, exhibiting a high degree of organization and also a highly dynamic nature. Live cell imaging using fluorescent proteins (FPs) as molecular tags and photobleaching techniques have been essential in revealing the dynamic nature of the cell nucleus. In this thesis, these tools were used to study molecular dynamics and interactions inside this cellular compartment. Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) were used to analyze the kinetic behavior of spliceosome components SmE, U2AF65, U2AF35, SF1 and SC35 in the nucleus of living cells. The recruitment mechanism of splicing factors (SFs) to the sites of transcription is still poorly understood. Our results rule out the hypothesis that a transcription specific signal recruits SFs from the speckles. They also suggest the formation of multi-protein complexes distinct from the spliceosome. The existence of these complexes was confirmed by Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) techniques, which revealed that SFs could interact with each other even in the absence of active splicing. A novel U2AF65 self-interaction was also detected, suggesting altogether that levels of SFs in speckles are consistent with self-organization mechanisms. The intranuclear mobility of mRNPs was studied using two GFP-tagged mRNA-binding proteins, PABPN1 and TAP, as mRNA markers. A novel FLIP method was devised to quantify the mobility of the RNA-bound and unbound pools of molecules and used to test whether myosin motors were implicated in mRNP movement. We show that this is not the case and that myosin inhibition appears to affect transcription instead. A novel FLIP after Photoactivation method was developed to study the nucleocytoplasmic exchange dynamics of nuclear proteins, yielding the permanence times of molecules inside the nucleus. The method was used to study the role of the structural domains of TAP in its shuttling activity.O núcleo celular é um organito complexo, dotado de um elevado grau de organização mas também uma natureza extremamente dinâmica. A utilização de proteínas fluorescentes como marcadores moleculares para visualização em células vivas, bem como as técnicas de photobleaching, têm sido essenciais na descoberta da natureza dinâmica do núcleo. Neste trabalho, estas ferramentas foram aplicadas no estudo da dinâmica e interacções moleculares dentro deste compartimento celular. As técnicas de Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) e Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) foram utilizadas na análise do comportamento cinético dos componentes do spliceosoma SmE, U2AF65, U2AF35, SF1 e SC35 no interior do núcleo de células vivas. O mecanismo de recrutamento dos factores de splicing (SFs) para os locais de transcrição é ainda pouco conhecido. Os nossos resultados excluem a hipótese de haver um sinal associado à transcrição que seja responsável por este recrutamento. Sugerem ainda a formação de complexos multi-proteicos distintos do spliceosoma. A existência destes complexos foi confirmada por técnicas de Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), que mostraram que os SFs podiam interagir uns com os outros mesmo na ausência de splicing activo. Foi ainda descoberta uma nova auto-interacção para o factor U2AF65, sugerindo os resultados no seu conjunto que a distribuição de SFs no núcleo é compatível com mecanismos de auto-organização. A mobilidade de mRNPs no núcleo foi estudada utilizando como marcadores moleculares duas proteínas que se ligam ao mRNA marcadas com GFP, PABPN1 e TAP. Foi desenvolvido um método de FLIP para quantificação da mobilidade das fracções ligadas e não ligadas ao mRNA e usado para testar a possibilidade de motores de miosina estarem envolvidos no movimento de mRNPs. Mostramos que tal não acontece e que a inibição de miosina parece antes afectar a transcrição. Um novo método de FLIP após foto-activação foi desenvolvido para estudar a dinâmica de trocas entre o núcleo e o citoplasma de proteínas nucleares, permitindo a estimação do tempo de permanência de moléculas dentro do núcleo. O método foi utilizado para investigar o papel dos diferentes domínios estruturais da proteína TAP na sua actividade de exportação nuclear.Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (BD/21518/99); European Commission (“RNOMICS” QLG2-CT-2001-01554 and “Integrated Technologies for in vivo Molecular Imaging” LSHG-CT-2003-503259

Dynamics of chromatin structure and nuclear multiprotein complexes investigated by quantitative fluorescence live cell microscopy and computational modeling

Biology has rapidly been transformed into a mainly data-driven, quantitative science. Demands on biological imaging are moving towards quantitative annotations of genes in vivo. In this work I have studied in detail the spatio-temporal distribution and the molecular interaction of protein ensembles as well as of multiprotein aggregates. I have provided the methodology to estimate biophysical parameters such as diffusion coefficients, anomalous diffusion and the free fraction in the binding equilibrium of protein ensembles using fluorescence photobleaching analysis and numcerical modeling and parameter estimation. On the side of protein complexes I have extended existing single particle tracking approaches to allow to automatically detect the exact timing of mobility changes of single particles in live cells. Here, I was able to provide quantitative parameters also on the diffusion coefficient, anomalous diffusion, velocity and chromatin interaction. The nuclear protein ensemble I studied was murine linker histone H1° fused to GFP. I was able to show that diffusion and binding of H1°-GFP to chromatin can be addressed using photobleaching analysis and numcerical modeling. I have thus obtained diffusion coefficients for wild-type H1° and seven point mutants with differential binding affinity ranging from D = 0.01 mm²/s (strongest binder) to D = 0.1 mm²/s (weakest binder). Likewise, I was able to estimate the free fraction to range from = 400 ppm to = 3000 ppm. Exemplary of large multiprotein complexes I chose PML nuclear bodies (PML NBs), named after their constituent promyelotic leukemia protein. I studied in detail their dynamic mobility during early mitosis, ranging from prophase to prometaphase. A dramatic global increase in PML NB mobility was found during this period with the diffusion coefficient increasing from D = 0.001 mm²/s at interphase to D = 0.005 mm²/s at prophase. Similarly, velocities increased from v = 0.7 mm/min to v = 1.4mm/min and concomittant with a loss in subdiffusive motion. I was able to establish loss of tethering to chromatin as the most likely reason behind this increase as opposed to material flow or chromatin condensation. Lastly, I was also able to relate the timing of the mobility increase to other important cellular events. The increase of PML NB mobility predominantly occured after nuclear entry of cyclin B1, which irreversibly commits the cell to mitosis, and before nuclear envelope breakdown (NEBD)

Using modern microscopy and image analysis methods to study dosage compensation in C. elegans

Condensine sind essentiell für die Faltung von Chromatin und wurden auch mit der Transkriptionsregulation in Verbindung gebracht. Der zugrunde liegende Mechanismus für die Transkriptionsregulation ist jedoch unklar. Condensin DC in C. elegans ist ein gutes Modell zur Erforschung der Transkriptionsregulation durch Condensine, da es spezifisch für die Dosiskompensation der Gene auf dem X Chromosom benutzt wird. Condensin DC bindet an beide X Chromosome in C. elegans Hermaphroditen und reduziert deren Transkription um die Hälfte. In meiner Dissertation habe ich untersucht, welche Rolle ein dynamisches Binden von Condensin DC an Chromatin spielt und wie dies die Transkription während der Embryogenese reguliert. Condensine binden dynamisch an Chromatin, um es zu komprimieren und durch Bildung von Schlaufen die Transkription zu regulieren. Mit Hilfe von „fluorescence recovery after photobleaching“ (FRAP) habe ich in adulten Darmzellen von C. elegans untersucht, welche Faktoren das dynamische Binden von Condensin DC an die X Chromosomen beeinflussen. Meine Daten zeigen, dass sowohl die ATPase-Domäne von Condensin DC, als auch eine nicht-katalytische Aktivität einer Histon-Demethylase die Bindedynamik von Condensin DC beeinflussen und damit Transkription regulieren. Zusätzlich habe ich mit einem Mikroskopieansatz, der auf dem Nachweis von einzelnen RNA Molekülen beruht (smFISH), die Transkription von mehreren Genen untersucht, die durch Condensin DC während der Embryonalentwicklung reguliert werden. Die aus diesen Daten ermittelten Transkriptionskinetiken deuten darauf hin, dass Condensin DC vorrangig die Häufigkeit der Transkriptionsinitiation reguliert. Zusammenfassend liefert meine Forschung neue Einblicke in die Transkriptionsregulation durch Condensine und kann als Basis für detailliertere, mechanistische Studien der Rolle von Condensinen in der Transkriptionsregulation in C. elegans und auch in anderen Organismen dienen.Condensins are essential for chromosome compaction and have been implicated in transcription regulation. The mechanistic foundation of this regulatory function is poorly understood. A clear paradigm to address this question is the X-specific condensin DC in C. elegans, which specifically binds to and transcriptionally represses X chromosomes in XX hermaphrodites by 2-fold. In my thesis, I studied condensin DC binding dynamics to the X chromosome and how condensin DC affects transcription kinetics in single embryos. The binding of condensins to chromatin has been described in recent microscopy-based studies as dynamic in processes including loop formation, chromatin compaction and transcription regulation. To study the dynamics of condensin DC binding, I established fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) in C. elegans adult intestinal cells. With this method, I studied how the ATPase domain and different histone modifiers regulate the dynamic binding of condensin DC. I found that the ATPase domain is critical for binding of the complex and that the noncatalytic activity of a histone demethylase increases the dynamics of condensin DC binding, which is crucial for its role in transcription regulation. To further study the mechanism of condensin DC in transcription regulation, I used an imaging approach based on widefield single-molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). I obtained thousands of smFISH images for a set of condensin DC-regulated genes and extracted mature and nascent RNA counts in 3D, which I used to determine transcription burst characteristics throughout embryonic development. My data show that condensin DC regulates the frequency of transcription initiation to down-regulate X-chromosomal genes. Taken together, my results provide new insight into condensin-mediated transcription regulation, which can be used to inform future studies on the mechanism of condensins in transcription regulation in C. elegans and other organisms

Stochastic combinations of actin regulatory proteins are sufficient to drive filopodia formation

Assemblies of actin and its regulators underlie the dynamic morphology of all eukaryotic cells. To understand how actin regulatory proteins work together to generate actin-rich structures such as filopodia, we analyzed the localization of diverse actin regulators within filopodia in Drosophila embryos and in a complementary in vitro system of filopodia-like structures (FLSs). We found that the composition of the regulatory protein complex where actin is incorporated (the filopodial tip complex) is remarkably heterogeneous both in vivo and in vitro. Our data reveal that different pairs of proteins correlate with each other and with actin bundle length, suggesting the presence of functional subcomplexes. This is consistent with a theoretical framework where three or more redundant subcomplexes join the tip complex stochastically, with any two being sufficient to drive filopodia formation. We provide an explanation for the observed heterogeneity and suggest that a mechanism based on multiple components allows stereotypical filopodial dynamics to arise from diverse upstream signaling pathways

Nucleoporin mRNA localization and Annulate Lamellae biosynthesis during Drosophila melanogaster oogenesis

Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are large protein assemblies that connect the eukaryotic nucleus with the cytoplasm, thus facilitating all transport between them. Besides the nuclear envelope (NE), NPCs also occur in parallel stacks of cytoplasmic membranes called Annulate Lamellae (AL) that can serve as storage, facilitating rapid nuclear growth via NE insertion during fruit fly embryogenesis. How and when AL are assembled is largely unknown. In this work, I established that AL are already abundant in late stage oocytes, and progressively accumulate throughout oogenesis specifically in the oocyte. By screening the localization of 39 nucleoporin and related mRNAs, I detected the specific enrichment of two nucleoporin and three importin encoding transcripts to AL, the NE, and previously unidentified nucleoporin granules throughout the egg chamber. Perturbation experiments revealed a dependence on active translation, but independence of an intact microtubule network on mRNA localization. Generation of GFP::Nup358 transgenic flies revealed granules with distinct partial nucleoporin contents, that are subject to microtubule-dependent transport and interactions among them. Their spatiotemporal abundance distribution is indicative of NPC precursors, and they contain partial accumulations of pore complexes within internal membranes. These granules further displayed characteristics of biomolecular condensates, including fast intra-granule dynamics, exclusion of cytoplasmic constituents, and sensitivity to 1,6-hexanediol. Both condensation state and AL assembly were dependent on Ran, a protein also fundamental for NPC assembly at the NE. Its nucleotide status throughout this is likely controlled by differential localization of its modulators RanGAP and Rcc1 to granules and cytoplasm respectively. This work thus established a molecular framework and basic sequence of events that leads to the assembly of AL, which are crucial during early development, and might have broader implications for NPC assembly also at the NE

In vivo Analysis of the Role of FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 Proteins in Chloroplast Division in Arabidopsis thaliana

Chloroplasts divide by a constrictive fission process that is regulated by FtsZ proteins. Given the importance of photosynthesis and chloroplasts in general, it is important to understand the mechanisms and molecular biology of chloroplast division. An FtsZ gene is known to be of prokaryotic origin and to have been transferred from a symbiont's genome to host genome via lateral transfer. Subsequent duplication of the initial FtsZ gene gave rise to the FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 genes and protein families in eukaryotes. These proteins co-localize mid-chloroplast to form the Z-ring. Z-ring assembly initiates chloroplast division, and it serves as a scaffold for other chloroplast division proteins. Little is known, however, about the FtsZ protein subunit turnover within the Z-ring, the effects of accessory proteins on Z-ring turnover assemblies, as well as the in vivo ultrastructure of the Z-ring in plants. To investigate the Arabidopsis thaliana FtsZ subunit turnover rate within the Z-ring, a section of the Z-ring in the chloroplasts of living plants expressing fluorescently tagged FtsZ1 or FtsZ2 proteins was photobleached and the recovery rate was monitored. The results show that the fluorescence recovery half times for the FtsZ1 and FtsZ2 proteins are 117s and 325s, respectively. This is significant as these data mirror their differences in GTP hydrolysis rates. To elucidate in vivo structure and ultrastructure of the Z-ring, a protocol was established that maintained fluorescence during high pressure freezing, freeze substitution and low temperature embedding. Afterwards, a correlative microscopy approach was employed to visualize and identify fluorescently labeled puncta, circular structures, at the light microscopy level. These puncta were further resolved as mini-rings using optical microscopy eXperimental (OMX) superresolution microscopy. Electron microscopy (EM) analysis imaged mini-rings and filament assemblies comprised of dense subunits. Electron tomography (ET) showed mini-rings composed of protofilaments