The relationship between athletes' perceptions of Covid-19 and communication with the psychological skills

Many athletes experienced psychological problems and communication with their coaches during the Covid-19 pandemic. The purposes of this study was to determine: athletes’ perceptions of Covid-19, communication athletes to coaches, the psychological skills of athletes, the relationship between athletes’ perceptions of Covid-19, and communication athletes-coaches with the psychological skills of Bengkulu athletes during Covid-19. The method used in this research was quantitative with a correlation approach. The population in this research was all Bengkulu athletes who would participate in National Sports Week (PON) Papua 2021, totaling 83 athletes. Sampling technique used is total sampling so that all populations were used as research samples. Research techniques and instruments used individual perception about Covid-19 questionnaire, the coaches-athletes relationship questionnaire, and the psychological skills inventory for sports questionnaire. Data analysis technique used multiple regression with SPSS at the significance level of 0.05. The result of this study indicates that: (1) athletes’ perceptions of Covid-19 have a good perception with score 70.00 – 84.00, (2) communication athletes to coaches have very good communication with score 41.39 - 46.00, (3) the psychological skills of athletes have a good category with score 129.20 - 159.9, (4) there was a significant relationship between athletes’ perceptions of Covid-19, communication athletes-coaches with psychological skills level of Bengkulu athletes during pandemic Covid-19 with sig. score 0.005 < 0.05. &nbsp

Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

Mucosal immune and physiological responses to exercise in wheelchair athletes

Apart from motor and sensory function loss, an injury to the spinal cord can cause sympathetic dysfunction, which has been shown to affect immune responses. In this thesis, data from five experimental studies have been collected to compare physiological and psychophysiological exercise responses between wheelchair athlete subgroups with different disabilities (tetraplegic, paraplegic, and non-spinal cord-injured). In two preparatory studies, physiological exercise responses to exhaustive (Chapter 4) and submaximal exercise (Chapter 5) were investigated in all three disability subgroups. Whilst reliability measures for peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) were in a range observed previously in able-bodied athletes, the variation in tetraplegic athletes was larger when expressed relative to their VO2peak, questioning the use of this variable to track small changes in aerobic capacity in athletic populations. Submaximal physiological and psychophysiological exercise responses were found to be similar between disability subgroups when expressed as a percentage of VO2peak, justifying the protocol used in the laboratory study on mucosal immune function, which was based on the same percentages of VO2peak for all disability subgroups. The most extensive study of this thesis, detailed in Chapter 6, showed that single laboratory-controlled 60-min exercise sessions increase both salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), a marker of mucosal immunity, and α-amylase, a marker of sympathetic activation in all three disability subgroups. However, the impaired sympathetic nervous system in tetraplegic athletes seemed to influence the fine-tuning of their sIgA response when compared with paraplegic and non-spinal cord-injured athletes, resulting in a larger exercise-induced increase of sIgA secretion rate when compared to paraplegic and non-spinal cord-injured athletes. Based on these results, the study detailed in Chapter 7 investigated sIgA responses in tetraplegic athletes during wheelchair rugby court training. Despite their disability, these athletes showed responses thought to be governed by the sympathetic nervous system, such as reductions of saliva flow rate as a result of strenuous exercise. Similarly, the responses observed in Chapter 8 imply a comparable trend of chronic sIgA exercise responses in tetraplegic athletes as found in the able-bodied population, namely a decrease in sIgA secretion rate during periods of heavy training. These are the first studies in wheelchair athlete populations to investigate mucosal immune responses. Interestingly, despite the disruption of their sympathetic nervous system, some responses in tetraplegic athletes are comparable with findings in able-bodied populations. It is possible that due to their highly trained nature, these tetraplegic individuals are able to compensate for their loss of central sympathetic innervation. This may be by way of adapted spinal reflex or parasympathetic nervous system activity, or increased sensitivity of receptors involved in autonomic pathways. Therefore, sympathetic nervous function in tetraplegic athletes may be qualitatively altered, but in parts still be functional

Effects of the COVID-19 Health Crisis on Sports Practice, Life Quality, and Emotional Status in Spanish High-Performance Athletes

Ajuts: This work belongs to the "Efectos de la nueva normalidad por crisis sanitaria COVID-19 en la práctica deportiva, la calidad de vida y el estado emocional de los deportistas de élite en España, EASED (CoV-19)" project, supported by San Antonio Catholic University (UCAM) (Plan Propio, PMAFICOVID19/19), Murcia, Spain.Spain is one of the many countries highly affected by the COVID-19 crisis, establishing very restrictive measures with a complete lockdown for more than 3 months. This situation forced the complete closure of sport practice and national or international competitions, leading to a negative impact on physical and psychological health of high-performance athletes. Therefore, the objectives of this study were (a) to determine the effects of the COVID-19 health crisis on Spanish high-performance athletes in terms of sports practice, life quality, and emotional state and (b) to identify the profile with the greatest difficulties during and after the lockdown. A sample of 130 high-performance athletes aged between 18 and 34 years (67 women and 63 men) participated in this study (83.1% achieved a medal in National-International elite competitions; 86.9% were considered student-athletes). Measures included socio-demographic data through a 5-dimension ad hoc survey: physical activity and exercise using an adapted version from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) ; health status and limitations using an adapted version of SF-12 Health Questionnaire ; Perceived stress (Short-PSS) ; and Mood States (29-item POMS). All participants have shown a significant decrease pre-post-lockdown in both health and performance perception, especially in women, individual athletes, medalists, and student-athletes. Strong limitations of training, attention, and motivation as well as a moderate negative emotional state during lockdown were reported, in women, individual athletes, medalists, and student-athletes. Even with an improved emotional state and energy level in the post-lockdown period, moderate-to-high stress scores were reported by women and medalists. Our findings highlight the importance of paying attention to the physical and psychological health of elite athletes on three profiles: team athletes (due to social distance), student-athletes (dual-career issues), and women athletes (prevalence of implicit gender inequalities in sport)

Training Load and Performance Monitoring, Recovery, Wellbeing, Illness and Injury Prevention

This book represents the efforts of different authors to analyze and provide solid evidence that supports training regulations based on monitoring strategies. This Special Issue includes original articles with some diversity, i.e., considering that different age groups, competitive levels, expertise, and conditions were researched regarding the main topics of training load and performance monitoring, recovery, wellbeing, and illness and injury prevention. Psychophysiological aspects were considered, as were locomotor and mechanical demands and tactical responses. The myriad outcomes analyzed present the reader with an overview of the state of the art and possible new directions for future research. In this book, readers will be also able to find systematic reviews about the key topics

Sleep Deprivation and Ultra-endurance Performance: Assessment and Countermeasures

Considered a psychobiological state similar to mental fatigue, sleep deprivation can be defined as a period of extended wakefulness for, at least, 24 hours. Ultra-endurance events are often described as exercise bouts lasting more than six hours, or running distances covered longer than a traditional marathon. The first aim of this thesis was to explore the sleep and performance of athletes in ultra-marathons longer than 161 km (100 mi). A moderate association between sleep duration and race time was found. Before the first sleep episode, athletes remained awake for more than 24 h. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), sleep bouts, sleep time, and sleepiness increased over the course of the race, whereas running speed decreased. As a consequence of the psychophysiological demands of ultra-endurance exercise and the exacerbated sleep loss, it has been suggested that perception of effort plays a key role in pace regulation during ultra-marathon events. The second aim was to investigate the use of caffeine as a countermeasure for the detrimental effects of sleep deprivation on endurance performance. After one night of sleep deprivation, 6 mg·kg-1 of caffeine improved 30-min running time trial performance by 5.54%. Caffeine reduces perception of effort, allowing participants to sustain a higher running speed at a lower RPE. Therefore, we propose that caffeine can be used to counteract the negative effects associated with sleep deprivation on endurance performance. The third aim was to study the effects training for a mountain ultra-marathon on sleep deprivation tolerance. Three bouts of exercise after one night of sleep deprivation over a 14-week period did not improve tolerance to the negative effects of sleep deprivation on endurance performance. One night of sleep deprivation reduces time to exhaustion by 28% when running at 75% of peak treadmill speed. Better sleep deprivation tolerance was associated with better chances to finish a ~340-km mountain ultra-marathon race. The main findings presented in this doctoral research thesis are: 1) a moderate positive association between sleep-related parameters and race time, suggesting that faster runners sleep less and spend less time in activities (i.e., restoring food/drinks at the checkpoints, resting, sleeping) other than moving towards the finish line. 2) The use of caffeine as a measure to counteract the negative effects of sleep deprivation on endurance performance. 3) Three exercise bouts in a sleep deprived state over a 14-week period did not reduce the negative effects of sleep deprivation. These findings might be particularly useful for athletes and/or coaches in the field of ultra-marathon and ultra-endurance performance. Sleep assessment during a mountain-ultra marathon and the countermeasures provided might help to plan their races accordingly

The Evolution of the Concept of Sleep and Movement Behaviour to the UK High Performance Sport Industry

The UK high performance industry has evolved and expanded over the last 20 years. Parallel to this has been an upsurge in the Sports Science industry with contemporary practitioners providing more support to elite athletes in a much more comprehensive and scientific manner. 'What it Takes to Win' (WITTW) models now form a strategic part of the performance planning process and many factors impact on WITTW variables. Fatigue management, through assessment of sleep and also, associated daytime movement behaviour, is an example of such a factor. I collectively term the assessment of both these variables 'Fatigue Management'. Limited knowledge exists regarding sleep characteristics and movement behaviour of elite athletes. Therefore, I present in this thesis the evolution of the concept of fatigue management practices (through athlete sleep and associated movement behaviour assessment), and show how it has been included in the routine methods of Sports Science and Medicine practitioners. Whilst sleep remains a poorly understood entity there is evidence of a reciprocal relationship between sleep and athletic performance with disturbed sleep having a detrimental effect on psycho-physiological processes. In the absence of an effective fatigue management strategy this can be particularly problematic for elite athletes. A technical description of sleep and associated movement behaviour are presented along with methodologies for fatigue management assessment and details of projects using fatigue management strategies. To add context and insight, subjective findings of the impact of introducing this new concept within UK high performance sports' programmes are presented. I present that physiologists should assess fatigue management in the elite athletes they support and use this assessment for dialogue with coaches and sports science and medicine peers, to ensure provision of optimal fatigue management strategies in the performance programmes with which they work. Finally, success factors, methods of optimal practice and future recommendations for an effective fatigue management strategy are presented

Menthol mouth swilling and endurance running performance in the heat

Heat challenges multiple physiological systems, and its effects are heavily felt by endurance athletes due to the duration and intensity that must be sustained in competition and training sessions. Runners may demonstrate impaired thermoregulatory responses or opportunities due to lower rates of convective cooling and fewer opportunities to provide cooling interventions during exercise than other endurance athletes e.g. cyclists. Cooling strategies may be employed before or during exercise to minimise the effects of heat exposure, and their effects have been studied for at least three Olympic cycles. Hence, the optimisation of timing and method of delivery of cooling provision, with the addition of any novel strategies, would be of benefit to the contemporary sport and exercise science practitioner. Initially this thesis sought to better understand the effects of cooling strategies upon time trial performance in endurance sports with a systematic review and meta-analysis. The efficacy of strategies was assessed with respect to intervention timing (pre or per-cooling or both) and method of delivery (oral or topical or both). Cooling strategies were found to provide small but ecologically relevant improvements in time trial performance, especially when administered during the exercise bout to the oral cavity; the addition of menthol was seen to possibly enhance ergogenic effects. Hence, a second systematic review regarding external or internal application of menthol was conducted and found that menthol demonstrated improvements in performance when applied internally, most likely due to altered thermal and ventilatory responses. A range in menthol concentrations and dilution methods was noted in the literature, establishing a clear need for a randomised trial to ascertain menthol concentration preference. Following appropriate dilution, 0.1% menthol was determined to be preferred; colour preference was also established to maximise the perceptual cooling effect of menthol solution. This solution was then used (without colour to ensure blindness) in subsequent investigations. At rest this solution was shown to improve perceptions of thermal comfort, thermal sensation and thirst, when compared to carbohydrate and water swilling. Two exercise trials were conducted: the first examined the effects of menthol mouth swilling upon physiological and perceptual markers over four minute intervals at a range of pertinent running speeds (14-20km.h-1), and following 1km time trial performance. Effects on time trial performance were unclear, as were the effects in physiological parameters. Thermal comfort however was improved, with menthol mouth swilling counterintuitively increasing thermal sensation and thirst in the heat (35oC), but i ameliorating these factors in the cold (15oC). Secondly, at a fixed rating of perceived exertion, corresponding to 2mmol.L-1 blood lactate, runners demonstrated a lower oxygen consumption following menthol mouth swilling for the latter two thirds of a 30-minute training session than compared to no swill or ice swilling. No changes in ventilation were shown, and the perceptual responses at a group level were unclear – suggesting that whilst menthol may improve the oxygen cost of running at a fixed rating of perceived exertion, this does not correspond to improvements in thermoregulatory perception in this sample. Qualitative responses regarding the swill from the athletes involved in the exercise studies were collated and menthol was considered an enjoyable and useful strategy by the athletes. Further research is required to assess if these hedonic and utilitarian perspectives are rated as highly in more ecologically valid environments; the athletes indicated this would be the case. The findings presented in this thesis demonstrate that a light blue or light green 0.1% menthol mouth rinse is preferred and can alleviate thermal sensation and thirst, and improve thermal comfort at rest in the heat. During exercise in a small sample of trained distance runners, menthol mouth swilling may alleviate perceptual symptoms of heat exposure without necessarily improving performance, dependent upon the running speeds chosen. Furthermore, menthol mouth swilling is considered a pleasant and potentially ergogenic strategy by athletes who have used it, suggesting that even in the absence of performance or physiological enhancements that exceed the typical coefficient of variation in performance, menthol mouth swilling is a viable nutritional support strategy for trained distance runners, when exercising in the heat

Mental health in elite athletes: International Olympic Committee consensus statement (2019)

Mental health symptoms and disorders are common among elite athletes, may have sport related manifestations within this population and impair performance. Mental health cannot be separated from physical health, as evidenced by mental health symptoms and disorders increasing the risk of physical injury and delaying subsequent recovery. There are no evidence or consensus based guidelines for diagnosis and management of mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes. Diagnosis must differentiate character traits particular to elite athletes from psychosocial maladaptations. Management strategies should address all contributors to mental health symptoms and consider biopsychosocial factors relevant to athletes to maximise benefit and minimise harm. Management must involve both treatment of affected individual athletes and optimising environments in which all elite athletes train and compete. To advance a more standardised, evidence based approach to mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes, an International Olympic Committee Consensus Work Group critically evaluated the current state of science and provided recommendations