Progress in the Development of CdTe and CdZnTe Semiconductor Radiation Detectors for Astrophysical and Medical Applications

Over the last decade, cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) wide band gap semiconductors have attracted increasing interest as X-ray and gamma ray detectors. Among the traditional high performance spectrometers based on silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), CdTe and CdZnTe detectors show high detection efficiency and good room temperature performance and are well suited for the development of compact and reliable detection systems. In this paper, we review the current status of research in the development of CdTe and CdZnTe detectors by a comprehensive survey on the material properties, the device characteristics, the different techniques for improving the overall detector performance and some major applications. Astrophysical and medical applications are discussed, pointing out the ongoing Italian research activities on the development of these detectors

Characterization of a CdZnTe detector for a low-power CubeSat application

We report spectral and imaging performance of a pixelated CdZnTe detector custom designed for the MeVCube project: a small Compton telescope on a CubeSat platform. MeVCube is expected to cover the energy range between 200 keV and 4 MeV, with a sensitivity comparable to the one of the last generation of larger satellites. In order to achieve this goal, an energy resolution of few percent in full width at half maximum (FWHM) and a 3-D spatial resolution of few millimeters for the individual detectors are needed. The severe power constraints present in small satellites require very low power read-out electronics for the detector. Our read-out is based on the VATA450.3 ASIC developed by Ideas, with a power consumption of only 0.25 mW/channel, which exhibits good performance in terms of dynamic range, noise and linearity. A 2.0 cm× 2.0 cm× 1.5 cm CdZnTe detector, with a custom 8 × 8 pixel anode structure read-out by a VATA450.3 ASIC, has been tested. A preliminary read-out system for the cathode, based on a discrete Amptek A250F charge sensitive pre-amplifier and a DRS4 ASIC, has been implemented. An energy resolution around 3% FWHM has been measured at a gamma energy of 662 keV; at 200 keV the average energy resolution is 6.5%, decreasing to ≲ 2% at energies above 1 MeV. A 3-D spatial resolution of ≈ 2 mm is achieved in each dimension.Peer Reviewe

Characterization of a CdZnTe detector for a low-power CubeSat application

We report spectral and imaging performance of a pixelated CdZnTe detector custom designed for the \emph{MeVCube} project: a small Compton telescope on a CubeSat platform. \emph{MeVCube} is expected to cover the energy range between $200\;\mathrm{keV}$ and $4\;\mathrm{MeV}$, with performance comparable to the last generation of larger satellites. In order to achieve this goal, an energy resolution of few percent in full width at half maximum (FWHM) and a $3$-D spatial resolution of few millimeters for the individual detectors are needed. The severe power constraints present in small satellites require very low power read-out electronics for the detector. Our read-out is based on the VATA450.3 ASIC developed by \emph{Ideas}, with a power consumption of only $0.25\;\mathrm{mW/channel}$, which exhibits good performance in terms of dynamic range, noise and linearity. A $2.0\;\mathrm{cm} \times 2.0\;\mathrm{cm} \times 1.5\;\mathrm{cm}$ CdZnTe detector, with a custom $8 \times 8$ pixel anode structure read-out by a VATA450.3 ASIC, has been tested. A preliminary read-out system for the cathode, based on a discrete \emph{Amptek} A250F charge sensitive pre-amplifier and a DRS4 ASIC, has been implemented. An energy resolution around $3\%$ FWHM has been measured at a gamma energy of $662\;\mathrm{keV}$; at $200\;\mathrm{keV}$ the average energy resolution is $6.5\%$, decreasing to $\lesssim 2\%$ at energies above $1\;\mathrm{MeV}$. A $3$-D spatial resolution of $\approx 2\,\mathrm{mm}$ is achieved

Advanced devices and systems for radiation measurements

The authors` most recent work continues their long-standing efforts to develop semiconductor detectors based on the collection of only a single type of charge carrier. Their best results are an extension of the principle of coplanar electrodes first described by Paul Luke of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 18 months ago. This technique, described in past progress reports, has the effect of deriving an output signal from detectors that depends only on the motion of carriers close to one surface. Since nearly all of these carriers are of one type (electrons) that are attracted to that electrode, the net effect is to nearly eliminate the influence of hole motion on the properties of the output signal. The result is that the much better mobility of electrons in compound semiconductors materials such as CZT can now be exploited without the concurrent penalty of poor hole collection. They have also developed new techniques in conjunction with the coplanar electrode principle that extends the technique into a new dimension. By proper processing of signals from the opposite electrode (the cathode) from the coplanar surface, they are able to derive a signal that is a good indication of the depth of interaction at which the charge carriers were initially formed. They have been the first group to demonstrate this technique, and examples of separate pulse height spectra recorded at a variety of different depths of interaction are shown in several of the figures that follow. Obtaining depth information is one step in the direction of obtaining volumetric point-of-interaction information from the detector. If one could known the coordinates of each specific interaction, then corrections could be applied to account for the inhomogeneities that currently plague many room-temperature devices

Development of a prototype detector for MeV gamma-ray detection on a CubeSat

Trotz der beeindruckenden Fortschritte, die die Röntgen- und Gammastrahlenobservatorien in den letzten Jahrzehnten erzielt haben, ist der Energiebereich zwischen 200 keV und 50 MeV nach wie vor kaum erforscht. Diese Lücke, die in der Literatur oft als ``MeV-Lücke'' bezeichnet wird, ist nicht auf einen Mangel an überzeugender Wissenschaft zurückzuführen, sondern auf technische Herausforderungen und Nachweisschwierigkeiten, die mit MeV-Beobachtungen einhergehen. COMPTEL an Bord von CGRO (1991-2000) war das letzte Teleskop, das eine vollständige Durchmusterung des MeV-Himmels mit einer relativ bescheidenen Empfindlichkeit durchführte. Für die Zukunft sind zahlreiche Missionen vorgeschlagen worden, insbesondere AMEGO, die die Leistung von COMPTEL um mindestens eine Größenordnung verbessern sollen. Der Zeitrahmen für die Entwicklung, den Aufbau und den Start solch großer Missionen beträgt jedoch etwa 10 Jahre und ist mit erheblichen Kosten verbunden. In diesem Szenario könnte ein viel kleinerer Satellit, der sich der neuen Welle von schnellen, relativ kostengünstigen Weltraumforschungsmissionen anschließt, die durch CubeSats ermöglicht werden, in kürzerer Zeit rentabel sein. In dieser Arbeit werden die Verfügbarkeit und die Leistung eines Compton-Teleskops auf der Grundlage des CubeSat-Standards, genannt MeVCube, untersucht. Die Auswirkungen der Materialwahl und verschiedener CubeSat-Nutzlasten wurden durch Simulationen bewertet. Trotz der begrenzten Größe kann selbst ein kleines Teleskop, das auf einem CubeSat fliegt, den Energiebereich von Hunderten von keV bis zu einigen MeV mit einer Empfindlichkeit abdecken, die mit der der letzten Generation von Großmissionen wie COMPTEL und INTEGRAL vergleichbar ist. Es wurden auch experimentelle Messungen an Cadmium-Zink-Tellurid-Halbleiterdetektoren und einer für den Weltraumbetrieb geeigneten Ausleseelektronik mit geringem Stromverbrauch durchgeführt.Despite the impressive progresses achieved both by X-ray and gamma-ray observatories in the last decades, the energy range between 200 keV and 50 MeV remains poorly explored. This gap in coverage, often referred in literature as the ``MeV gap'', is not due to lack of compelling science, but instead to technical challenges and detection difficulties that comes with MeV observations. COMPTEL, on-board CGRO (1991-2000), was the last telescope to accomplish a complete survey of the MeV-sky with a relatively modest sensitivity. Many missions have been proposed for the future, most notably AMEGO, aiming to improve COMPTEL's performance by at least one order of magnitude. However, the timescale for development, assembly and launch of such large missions is around 10 years, with substantial costs. Looking at this scenario, a much smaller satellite, joining the new wave of rapid, relatively inexpensive space science missions enabled by CubeSats, may be profitable on a shorter time-scale. This thesis evaluates the availability and performance of a Compton telescope based on the CubeSat standard, named MeVCube. The impact of material choice and different CubeSat payloads has been evaluated through simulations. Despite the limited size, even a small telescope flying on a CubeSat can cover the energy range from hundreds of keV up to few MeVs with a sensitivity comparable to that of the last generation of large-scale missions like COMPTEL and INTEGRAL. Experimental measurements on Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride semiconductor detectors and low-power read-out electronics suitable for space operation have been performed as well

Analysis of Cadmium Zinc Telluride Detector Performance and Characteristics for Applications in Gamma-Ray Imaging Spectrometers.

Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CdZnTe) is a promising material for gamma-ray measurement applications. It operates at room temperature with high-quality energy resolution. Pixellated anode read-out, the small pixel effect and the theory behind weighting potential can be used to determine the 3-D position of each interaction in the device. If an incident gamma ray interacts via Compton scattering, the physics of the interaction can be used to predict the incident direction of the gamma ray, allowing for gamma-ray imaging to also be performed using CdZnTe detectors. The combination of gamma ray imaging and high-quality spectroscopic performance makes CdZnTe one of the most promising materials for gamma-ray measurement applications. This work will focus on analysis of the spectroscopic performance of these detectors. Two 18-detector CdZnTe array systems have been built and operated over the past several years. Each system operates at room temperature and is capable of high-quality spectroscopy and gamma-ray imaging. The first system achieved 1.44% FWHM at 662 keV for all events. The second system achieved 1.21% FWHM at 662 keV. A large number of 20x20x15 mm3 CdZnTe detectors were studied to determine the factors that are correlated to better spectroscopic performance. The electron transport properties of the detectors were found to be correlated to the uncalibrated spectroscopic performance, but uncorrelated to the calibrated spectroscopic performance. Further analysis of the performance of CdZnTe detectors was performed through coincidence interactions with an HPGe detector. From measurements of coincident full-energy interactions from a Cs-137 source, the energy resolution and energy non-linearity were studied as a function of deposited energy in the CdZnTe detector. Analysis of the energy non-linearity showed that most of the measured offset in energy at low energies is related to the ASIC's non-linearity. Finally, the efficiency of CdZnTe detectors was studied. Calibration data from the second 18-detector array system showed that there are not any complete trapping defects, which cause degraded efficiency. Comparisons between simulation and measurement of a Co-60 source showed that the intrinsic efficiency of the CdZnTe system is lower than expected due to energy losses to small trapping defects and unreconstructed events.PHDNuclear Engineering & Radiological SciencesUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/98075/1/yanders_1.pd