Temperament in the Classroom

Variance in academic performance that persists when situational variables are held constant suggests that whether students fail or thrive depends not only on circumstance, but also on relatively stable individual differences in how children respond to circumstance. More academically talented children generally outperform their less able peers, but much less is known about how traits unrelated to general intelligence influence academic outcomes. This paper addresses several related questions: What insights can be gleaned from historical interest in the role of temperament in the classroom? What does recent empirical research say about the specific dimensions of temperament most important to successful academic performance? In particular, which aspects of temperament most strongly influence school readiness, academic achievement, and educational attainment? What factors mediate and moderate associations between temperament and academic outcomes? What progress has been made in deliberately cultivating aspects of temperament that matter most to success in school? And, finally, for researchers keenly interested in better understanding how and why temperament influences academic success, in which direction does future progress lie?

Predicting first year college achievement

The current trends observed in 4-year college graduation and retention rates (ACT 2011; 2012; 2013; 2014; Tinto, 2006) demonstrate a need for improvement in student academic achievement outcomes. Overwhelmingly, research finds that the first year in college is the time of greatest risk for student academic failure and drop out. Challenges associated with academic-oriented forms of stress and anxiety (Baillie & Fitzgerald, 2000; Bembenutty, 2008; Cassady, 2010; Collier & Morgan, 2008; Jean, 2010; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Soria & Stebleton, 2012; Turner et al., 2012) coupled with limitations in effective coping strategies (Hofer et al., 1998; Kitsantas et al., 2008; McInerney, 2011; Pintrich & Zusho, 2002; Robbins et al., 2004; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008) lie at the center of the difficulties these first-year students experience, which ultimately play a significant role in persistence and achievement outcomes. This is particularly true for students from at-risk populations (e.g., first-generation students, ethnic minorities; Balemian & Feng, 2013; Borman & Overman, 2004; Choy, 2001; Engle, 2007; Jones et al., 2010; Pascarella et al., 2004; Toldson, 2012). Postsecondary institutions continue to seek answers through formal assessment and research investigations that may pave the way toward improving the achievement outcomes of their student population. The wide body of research confirms that no single factor reliably predicts college academic success or failure, although institutions have traditionally relied upon indicators of prior achievement (i.e., H.S. GPA and college entrance exams) for such inferences (Alarcon & Edwards, 2013; DeBerard et al., 2004; Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Kowitlawakul et al., 2013; Randsell, 2001; Zypher et al., 2007). Rather, it is the collective of factors from environmental, behavioral and personal domains that interact and have the potential to positively or negatively influence college student achievement (Bandura, 1986; 1997; 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Snow et al., 1996). As such, the Transactional Stress and Coping model (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) provides a comprehensive model through which the influence and interaction of multiple factors associated with student stress-appraisals, coping responses, and eventual outcomes can be examined within investigations of college academic achievement. The main purpose of this study was to examine the degree of influence student background characteristics, indicators of prior achievement, anxiety-laden cognitive belief states, and self-regulated learning had on first-year college student achievement. Informed by the Lazarus and Folkman (1984) framework, a proposed academic-oriented stress-appraisal and coping model was tested for viability in predicting student achievement outcomes at the conclusion of their first-year in college. This study investigated research questions specifically associated with: 1) the influence of gender, ethnicity and first-generation status on first-year achievement; 2) the influence of student prior achievement (i.e., H. S. GPA and SAT scores) on first-year achievement; 3) the potential mediating influence of cognitive appraisals on first-year achievement; and 4) the potential moderating role of self-regulated learning in first-year achievement. For this archival study, all student demographic data, measures of prior achievement, first-year college achievement (cumulative GPA) and self-report responses to the LASSI-HS (Weinstein & Palmer, 1990) instrument were accessed from a large sample (N = 29,431) of first-time, first-year students enrolled at a mid-sized, Midwestern 4-year university during years 2004-2012. Using an established model of stress-appraisal and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) within an academic context, five models were tested using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to answer the specific research questions and investigate the utility of the models in predicting first-year college achievement. The results revealed that although all background factors (i.e., gender, ethnicity, first-generation status) were statistically significant predictors of first-year achievement (GPA), their influence on first-year GPA was minimal. Additionally, prior achievement had a statistically significant, but weak, influence on first-year GPA. Although the direct path relationships for all pre-existing personal factors were statistically significant, the results also indicated anxious cognitive appraisals served a mediating role between these factors and first-year GPA. Thus, a partially mediated model best represented the relationships among these variables. The potential moderating effects of motivational regulation and active coping strategies did not have any meaningful impact in the two self-regulatory coping models tested. Although some statistically significant relationships were observed and provided evidence that background factors, prior achievement, anxious cognitive appraisals and self-regulated learning are associated, their influence was minimal and offered little practical utility in explaining first-year college student achievement. Overall, the results of the study were unexpected given the strong theoretical and empirical support for the measures utilized in the study and literature supporting meaningful and rather robust relationships among the variables of interest. This atypical finding seemed to be due primarily to the first-year student GPAs, and suggests attending to concerns related to the evaluation of student performance and achievement in the first year of college. Exploration of this pattern with additional performance and student typology data may guide institutional decision making related to student selection, program rigor, or evaluation practices. The implications of these results within the discussion of student success in higher education as well as directions for future research are also provided.Thesis (Ph. D.)Department of Educational Psycholog

The Effectiveness of a Learning Strategies Course on College Student-Athletes' Adjustment, Use of Learning Strategies, and Academic Performance

We examined the effectiveness of a learning strategies course in assisting at-risk male and female freshmen student athletes in improving their academic performances. Participants included 129 freshman student-athletes (Female=72 and Male= 57) from a large southern university. Eighty-six participants were enrolled in the student-athlete PSYC 1000 class, either in Fall 2003 or Fall 2004; 43 were student-athletes who entered the university during the same time but were not required to enroll in the course because their test scores and high school grades met or exceeded the university's academic requirements for open admission. The learning strategies course (PSYC 1000) is based on psychological and educational theories and models associated with learning, self-regulation, personal and career development, communication, stress and coping, and health. The overall goals of the course are to (1) assist students in developing effective strategies to be proficient learners, (2) increase their understanding of how people change and develop, and (3) apply this knowledge across academic programs and in all areas of their lives to make positive, self-enhancing changes. The course was based on the same syllabus and lesson plans that are used in other PSYC 1000 sections for students who are not athletes, however, the lesson plans are tailored to encompass the specific demands of the student-athlete experience. The at-risk student athletes reported im­provements across a wide range of study skills, such as comprehension, concentration and use of test-taking strategies, during their first semester of college when they were enrolled in the course. In comparison to regu­larly admitted student-athletes who did not take the course, the at-risk student athletes earned comparable grades during their first two semes­ters. Although neither academic nor noncognitive variables predicted the male student athletes' first and second semester GPA's, female athletes' ability to manage their time as well as their willingness to take responsi­bility for their learning was positively related to their academic perform­ances. Regarding their adjustment to college, the at-risk student athletes showed improvement in the personal/emotional area, but slight decreases with respect to academics and social relationships. Overall, these findings support learning strategies courses as an effectiveness mechanism for improving the academic performance of at-risk student athletes

The Relationship Between Grade Point Average and Understanding of Homework\u27s Purpose and Management in Economically Disadvantaged High School Students

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a key measure of academic achievement, grade point average (GPA), could accurately be predicted from a linear combination of understanding homework’s purpose as measured by the Homework Purpose Scale (HPS) and by the student’s approach to homework management and homework behaviors as measured by the Homework Management Scale (HMS). This quantitative study is a cross-sectional questionnaire-based survey design comprised of two previously established valid and reliable scales: the Homework Purpose Scale and the Homework Management Scale. The study’s design is correlational using a sample (N = 300) of pre-existing high school (grade 9-12) classes within seven Catholic high schools serving economically disadvantaged students located in seven different US cities. A multiple regression was conducted to evaluate whether there is a significant predictive relationship between the criterion variable (GPA) and the linear combination of predictor variables (HPS and HMS) for the economically disadvantaged Catholic high school students. The study’s results demonstrated no statistically significant relationship between students’ understanding of homework’s purpose and management of homework and students’ grade point average. Recommendations for future research are to examine whether relationships exist between homework purpose, homework management, and grade point average with students of different races and ethnicity, with students of different genders, and students at different grade levels. Though not in the purpose of the current study, when these variables were looked at separately, significant correlations were found to be present

Self-Regulated Learning in an Introductory Undergraduate Accounting Course.

Self-regulated learning skills have been shown to positively impact academic achievement in educational settings. This same set of skills becomes critically important as graduates enter today‟s dynamic work environment. That environment increasingly requires accountants and other professionals to be lifelong learners. This study is a response to the call of the Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC) to make learning to learn a priority in the accounting classroom. This study used a quantitative, quasi-experimental design within the context of a beginning accounting course. The course is characterized by high failure rates, highly conceptual content, and a population of novice learners. Study participants were stratified according to ACT level, prior GPA level, and academic major. The control group received instruction based on course content only. The treatment group received an intervention in which instruction focused on the process of learning as well as on regular course content. The purpose of the study was to determine whether academic performance differed between the 2 groups. The study further examined whether differences in the means on exam scores varied as a function of ACT level, prior GPA level, or academic major. A MANOVA indicated a significant difference in exam scores between the control and treatment groups with the treatment group outperforming the control group on 4 of the 5 exams. Follow-up ANOVAS were used to determine on which exams statistical significance was found. Two-way ANOVAS revealed no significant interaction between classroom method and prior GPA or academic major. Although statistical significance was not found in the interaction between classroom method and ACT level, descriptive statistics revealed that the greatest differences (between the mean exam scores of the control and treatment groups) occurred among the high-ACT group. The researcher did not attempt to trace causal paths, or changes in the mediating variables that may have linked changes in the learning environment to changes in academic performance. This study provided evidence that instruction related to the process of learning did not diminish academic performance on content-based exams and for most groups of students who received such instruction performance on exams was enhanced. This study casts doubt on the presence of a ceiling effect, which is often associated with high-ACT students

The role of personal and contextual variables in college students\u27 academic achievement

College matriculation rates are increasing but graduation rates are failing to parallel the increased enrollment. One reason for this discrepancy may be that many college students are unable to regulate their own learning. This dissertation examined the Self-Regulated Learning (SRL; Pintrich, 2004) model in students taking Statistics in Psychology and Research Methods. The inclusion of the constructs of possible selves and identity development in the SRL model was proposed, as was the Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot & McGregor, 2001), a measure of the 2x2 Framework of achievement goal orientation. These variables were assessed along with those included in the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia & McKeachie, 1993). Results indicated that possible selves and the AGQ are not useful predictors of the academic outcomes of test grade and expected final grade. Ego identity status, however, was a significant predictor of course outcomes. The best single predictor was self-efficacy for learning from the MSLQ. Multiple regression models accounted for 27--36% of the variance in test grades and 49--67% of the variance in expected final grades. Evaluation of strategy change over the course of a semester revealed that students do adjust their study strategies and motivational beliefs effectively

Adopting a Growth Mindset Approach to Interventions for Self-Regulation

Research continues to demonstrate self-regulation’s significance in almost all aspects of life, including but not limited to academic success and school adjustment. Incorporating a growth mindset into self-regulation may be a potential missing motivational component in school-based interventions. This pilot study assessed trends in survey results of whether a group of high school students who receive special education with noted difficulties in emotional regulation, organization, and consistent/timely work completion. The survey assessed whether they held a more fixed or growth mindset of self-regulation prior to intervention and whether those students\u27 mindset of self-regulation moved towards a growth mindset of self-regulation after receiving a standardized executive functioning curriculum that included an added lesson on the growth mindset of self-regulation. The baseline survey responses suggest that more students identify with a fixed mindset of intelligence, time management, academic motivation, all-or-nothing thinking, goal setting, attention regulation, and interest in challenging tasks, but not emotional regulation, planning/organization, and autonomy of learning. Post-intervention data indicate that the intervention had the greatest impact on increasing the students’ beliefs around the malleability of intelligence but that more research is needed regarding growth mindset of self-regulation, potential interventions targeting a growth mindset of self-regulation, and the potential impact on students who struggle academically and receive special education services

A Study of the Impact of Mental Contrasting and Implementation Intentions on Academic Performance

According to the U.S. Department of Education, the national high school graduation rate is 81% and only 59% of college enrolled students in 2006 obtained a college degree within ten years of entering 9th grade (U. S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, 2014). Studies conclude that high school grades predicted academic performance no matter what type of high school the students attended and that students who had good grades went on to graduate from college as a result of self-efficacy, motivation, and academic goals (Bowen, Chingos, & McPherson, 2011). Limited research suggests that using mental contrasting and implementation intentions (MCII) positively impacts short-term goal attainment in educational settings. The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate the effects of high school students using these strategies prior to setting academic goals for a ten week marking period. One-hundred and eighteen students attending an urban charter school located in the United States participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to a treatment group or a control group. Prior to setting their English course academic goals, students in the treatment group learned how to use mental contrasting and created implementation intentions. Results indicate a positive correlation between the MCII intervention and academic performance since there was a significant effect on end-of-quarter grades for students assigned to the experimental group (p = .025). This study supports the recommendation to develop curricula that includes teaching goal setting strategies, as well as other noncognitive skills and metacognitive strategies, with the aim of improving academic performance