The delta radiance field

The wide availability of mobile devices capable of computing high fidelity graphics in real-time has sparked a renewed interest in the development and research of Augmented Reality applications. Within the large spectrum of mixed real and virtual elements one specific area is dedicated to produce realistic augmentations with the aim of presenting virtual copies of real existing objects or soon to be produced products. Surprisingly though, the current state of this area leaves much to be desired: Augmenting objects in current systems are often presented without any reconstructed lighting whatsoever and therefore transfer an impression of being glued over a camera image rather than augmenting reality. In light of the advances in the movie industry, which has handled cases of mixed realities from one extreme end to another, it is a legitimate question to ask why such advances did not fully reflect onto Augmented Reality simulations as well. Generally understood to be real-time applications which reconstruct the spatial relation of real world elements and virtual objects, Augmented Reality has to deal with several uncertainties. Among them, unknown illumination and real scene conditions are the most important. Any kind of reconstruction of real world properties in an ad-hoc manner must likewise be incorporated into an algorithm responsible for shading virtual objects and transferring virtual light to real surfaces in an ad-hoc fashion. The immersiveness of an Augmented Reality simulation is, next to its realism and accuracy, primarily dependent on its responsiveness. Any computation affecting the final image must be computed in real-time. This condition rules out many of the methods used for movie production. The remaining real-time options face three problems: The shading of virtual surfaces under real natural illumination, the relighting of real surfaces according to the change in illumination due to the introduction of a new object into a scene, and the believable global interaction of real and virtual light. This dissertation presents contributions to answer the problems at hand. Current state-of-the-art methods build on Differential Rendering techniques to fuse global illumination algorithms into AR environments. This simple approach has a computationally costly downside, which limits the options for believable light transfer even further. This dissertation explores new shading and relighting algorithms built on a mathematical foundation replacing Differential Rendering. The result not only presents a more efficient competitor to the current state-of-the-art in global illumination relighting, but also advances the field with the ability to simulate effects which have not been demonstrated by contemporary publications until now

Enhanced Shadow Retargeting with Light-Source Estimation Using Flat Fresnel Lenses

Shadow-retargeting maps depict the appearance of real shadows to virtual shadows given corresponding deformation of scene geometry, such that appearance is seamlessly maintained. By performing virtual shadow reconstruction from unoccluded real-shadow samples observed in the camera frame, this method efficiently recovers deformed shadow appearance. In this manuscript, we introduce a light-estimation approach that enables light-source detection using flat Fresnel lenses that allow this method to work without a set of pre-established conditions. We extend the adeptness of this approach by handling scenarios with multiple receiver surfaces and a non-grounded occluder with high accuracy. Results are presented on a range of objects, deformations, and illumination conditions in real-time Augmented Reality (AR) on a mobile device. We demonstrate the practical application of the method in generating otherwise laborious in-betweening frames for 3D printed stop-motion animatio

Analysis of Visualisation and Interaction Tools Authors

This document provides an in-depth analysis of visualization and interaction tools employed in the context of Virtual Museum. This analysis is required to identify and design the tools and the different components that will be part of the Common Implementation Framework (CIF). The CIF will be the base of the web-based services and tools to support the development of Virtual Museums with particular attention to online Virtual Museum.The main goal is to provide to the stakeholders and developers an useful platform to support and help them in the development of their projects, despite the nature of the project itself. The design of the Common Implementation Framework (CIF) is based on an analysis of the typical workflow ofthe V-MUST partners and their perceived limitations of current technologies. This document is based also on the results of the V-MUST technical questionnaire (presented in the Deliverable 4.1). Based on these two source of information, we have selected some important tools (mainly visualization tools) and services and we elaborate some first guidelines and ideas for the design and development of the CIF, that shall provide a technological foundation for the V-MUST Platform, together with the V-MUST repository/repositories and the additional services defined in the WP4. Two state of the art reports, one about user interface design and another one about visualization technologies have been also provided in this document

Towards Predictive Rendering in Virtual Reality

The strive for generating predictive images, i.e., images representing radiometrically correct renditions of reality, has been a longstanding problem in computer graphics. The exactness of such images is extremely important for Virtual Reality applications like Virtual Prototyping, where users need to make decisions impacting large investments based on the simulated images. Unfortunately, generation of predictive imagery is still an unsolved problem due to manifold reasons, especially if real-time restrictions apply. First, existing scenes used for rendering are not modeled accurately enough to create predictive images. Second, even with huge computational efforts existing rendering algorithms are not able to produce radiometrically correct images. Third, current display devices need to convert rendered images into some low-dimensional color space, which prohibits display of radiometrically correct images. Overcoming these limitations is the focus of current state-of-the-art research. This thesis also contributes to this task. First, it briefly introduces the necessary background and identifies the steps required for real-time predictive image generation. Then, existing techniques targeting these steps are presented and their limitations are pointed out. To solve some of the remaining problems, novel techniques are proposed. They cover various steps in the predictive image generation process, ranging from accurate scene modeling over efficient data representation to high-quality, real-time rendering. A special focus of this thesis lays on real-time generation of predictive images using bidirectional texture functions (BTFs), i.e., very accurate representations for spatially varying surface materials. The techniques proposed by this thesis enable efficient handling of BTFs by compressing the huge amount of data contained in this material representation, applying them to geometric surfaces using texture and BTF synthesis techniques, and rendering BTF covered objects in real-time. Further approaches proposed in this thesis target inclusion of real-time global illumination effects or more efficient rendering using novel level-of-detail representations for geometric objects. Finally, this thesis assesses the rendering quality achievable with BTF materials, indicating a significant increase in realism but also confirming the remainder of problems to be solved to achieve truly predictive image generation

Intermediated reality

Real-time solutions to reducing the gap between virtual and physical worlds for photorealistic interactive Augmented Reality (AR) are presented. First, a method of texture deformation with image inpainting, provides a proof of concept to convincingly re-animate fixed physical objects through digital displays with seamless visual appearance. This, in combination with novel methods for image-based retargeting of real shadows to deformed virtual poses and environment illumination estimation using in conspicuous flat Fresnel lenses, brings real-world props to life in compelling, practical ways. Live AR animation capability provides the key basis for interactive facial performance capture driven deformation of real-world physical facial props. Therefore, Intermediated Reality (IR) is enabled; a tele-present AR framework that drives mediated communication and collaboration for multiple users through the remote possession of toys brought to life.This IR framework provides the foundation of prototype applications in physical avatar chat communication, stop-motion animation movie production, and immersive video games. Specifically, a new approach to reduce the number of physical configurations needed for a stop-motion animation movie by generating the in-between frames digitally in AR is demonstrated. AR-generated frames preserve its natural appearance and achieve smooth transitions between real-world keyframes and digitally generated in-betweens. Finally, the methods integrate across the entire Reality-Virtuality Continuum to target new game experiences called Multi-Reality games. This gaming experience makes an evolutionary step toward the convergence of real and virtual game characters for visceral digital experiences

Realistic Visualization of Accessories within Interactive Simulation Systems for Garment Prototyping

In virtual garment prototyping, designers create a garment design by using Computer Aided Design (CAD). In difference to traditional CAD the word "aided" in this case refers to the computer replicating real world behavior of garments. This allows the designer to interact naturally with his design. The designer has a wide range of expressions within his work. This is done by defining details on a garment which are not limited to the type of cloth used. The way how cloth patterns are sewn together and the style and usage of details of the cloth's surface, like appliqués, have a strong impact on the visual appearance of a garment to a large degree. Therefore, virtual and real garments usually have a lot of such surface details. Interactive virtual garment prototyping itself is an interdisciplinary field. Several problems have to be solved to create an efficiently usable real-time virtual prototyping system for garment manufacturers. Such a system can be roughly separated into three sub-components. The first component deals with acquisition of material and other data needed to let a simulation mimic plausible real world behavior of the garment. The second component is the garment simulation process itself. Finally, the third component is centered on the visualization of the simulation results. Therefore, the overall process spans several scientific areas which have to take into account the needs of each other in order to get an overall interactive system. In my work I especially target the third section, which deals with the visualization. On the scientific side, the developments in the last years have shown great improvements on both speed and reliability of simulation and rendering approaches suitable for the virtual prototyping of garments. However, with the currently existing approaches there are still many problems to be solved, especially if interactive simulation and visualization need to work together and many object and surface details come into play. This is the case when using a virtual prototyping in a productive environment. The currently available approaches try to handle most of the surface details as part of the simulation. This generates a lot of data early in the pipeline which needs to be transferred and processed, requiring a lot of processing time and easily stalls the pipeline defined by the simulation and visualization system. Additionally, real world garment examples are already complicated in their cloth arrangement alone. This requires additional computational power. Therefore, the interactive garment simulation tends to lose its capability to allow interactive handling of the garment. In my work I present a solution, which solves this problem by moving the handling of design details from the simulation stage entirely to a completely GPU based rendering stage. This way, the behavior of the garment and its visual appearance are separated. Therefore, the simulation part can fully concentrate on simulating the fabric behavior, while the visualization handles the placing of surface details lighting, materials and self-shadowing. Thus, a much higher degree of surface complexity can be achieved within an interactive virtual prototyping system as can be done with the current existing approaches

A window to the past through modern urban environments: Developing a photogrammetric workflow for the orientation parameter estimation of historical images

The ongoing process of digitization in archives is providing access to ever-increasing historical image collections. In many of these repositories, images can typically be viewed in a list or gallery view. Due to the growing number of digitized objects, this type of visualization is becoming increasingly complex. Among other things, it is difficult to determine how many photographs show a particular object and spatial information can only be communicated via metadata. Within the scope of this thesis, research is conducted on the automated determination and provision of this spatial data. Enhanced visualization options make this information more eas- ily accessible to scientists as well as citizens. Different types of visualizations can be presented in three-dimensional (3D), Virtual Reality (VR) or Augmented Reality (AR) applications. However, applications of this type require the estimation of the photographer’s point of view. In the photogrammetric context, this is referred to as estimating the interior and exterior orientation parameters of the camera. For determination of orientation parameters for single images, there are the established methods of Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) or photogrammetric space resection. Using these methods requires the assignment of measured object points to their homologue image points. This is feasible for single images, but quickly becomes impractical due to the large amount of images available in archives. Thus, for larger image collections, usually the Structure-from-Motion (SfM) method is chosen, which allows the simultaneous estimation of the interior as well as the exterior orientation of the cameras. While this method yields good results especially for sequential, contemporary image data, its application to unsorted historical photographs poses a major challenge. In the context of this work, which is mainly limited to scenarios of urban terrestrial photographs, the reasons for failure of the SfM process are identified. In contrast to sequential image collections, pairs of images from different points in time or from varying viewpoints show huge differences in terms of scene representation such as deviations in the lighting situation, building state, or seasonal changes. Since homologue image points have to be found automatically in image pairs or image sequences in the feature matching procedure of SfM, these image differences pose the most complex problem. In order to test different feature matching methods, it is necessary to use a pre-oriented historical dataset. Since such a benchmark dataset did not exist yet, eight historical image triples (corresponding to 24 image pairs) are oriented in this work by manual selection of homologue image points. This dataset allows the evaluation of frequently new published methods in feature matching. The initial methods used, which are based on algorithmic procedures for feature matching (e.g., Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT)), provide satisfactory results for only few of the image pairs in this dataset. By introducing methods that use neural networks for feature detection and feature description, homologue features can be reliably found for a large fraction of image pairs in the benchmark dataset. In addition to a successful feature matching strategy, determining camera orientation requires an initial estimate of the principal distance. Hence for historical images, the principal distance cannot be directly determined as the camera information is usually lost during the process of digitizing the analog original. A possible solution to this problem is to use three vanishing points that are automatically detected in the historical image and from which the principal distance can then be determined. The combination of principal distance estimation and robust feature matching is integrated into the SfM process and allows the determination of the interior and exterior camera orientation parameters of historical images. Based on these results, a workflow is designed that allows archives to be directly connected to 3D applications. A search query in archives is usually performed using keywords, which have to be assigned to the corresponding object as metadata. Therefore, a keyword search for a specific building also results in hits on drawings, paintings, events, interior or detailed views directly connected to this building. However, for the successful application of SfM in an urban context, primarily the photographic exterior view of the building is of interest. While the images for a single building can be sorted by hand, this process is too time-consuming for multiple buildings. Therefore, in collaboration with the Competence Center for Scalable Data Services and Solutions (ScaDS), an approach is developed to filter historical photographs by image similarities. This method reliably enables the search for content-similar views via the selection of one or more query images. By linking this content-based image retrieval with the SfM approach, automatic determination of camera parameters for a large number of historical photographs is possible. The developed method represents a significant improvement over commercial and open-source SfM standard solutions. The result of this work is a complete workflow from archive to application that automatically filters images and calculates the camera parameters. The expected accuracy of a few meters for the camera position is sufficient for the presented applications in this work, but offer further potential for improvement. A connection to archives, which will automatically exchange photographs and positions via interfaces, is currently under development. This makes it possible to retrieve interior and exterior orientation parameters directly from historical photography as metadata which opens up new fields of research.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Thesis structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Historical image data and archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Structure-from-Motion for historical images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.2 Selection of images and preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.3 Feature detection, feature description and feature matching . . . . . . 6 1.3.3.1 Feature detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.3.2 Feature description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.3.3 Feature matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.3.4 Geometric verification and robust estimators . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.3.5 Joint methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.3.4 Initial parameterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.3.5 Bundle adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.3.6 Dense reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.3.7 Georeferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.4 Research objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2 Generation of a benchmark dataset using historical photographs for the evaluation of feature matching methods 29 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.1.1 Image differences based on digitization and image medium . . . . . . . 30 2.1.2 Image differences based on different cameras and acquisition technique 31 2.1.3 Object differences based on different dates of acquisition . . . . . . . . 31 2.2 Related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.3 The image dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.4 Comparison of different feature detection and description methods . . . . . . 35 2.4.1 Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF (ORB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.4.2 Maximally Stable Extremal Region Detector (MSER) . . . . . . . . . 36 2.4.3 Radiation-invariant Feature Transform (RIFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.4.4 Feature matching and outlier removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.6 Conclusions and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3 Photogrammetry as a link between image repository and 4D applications 45 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 IX Contents 3.2 Multimodal access on repositories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.2.1 Conventional access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.2.2 Virtual access using online collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.2.3 Virtual museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.3 Workflow and access strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3.2 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.3.3 Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.3.4 Browser access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.3.5 VR and AR access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4 An adapted Structure-from-Motion Workflow for the orientation of historical images 69 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.2 Related Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2.1 Historical images for 3D reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.2.2 Algorithmic Feature Detection and Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.2.3 Feature Detection and Matching using Convolutional Neural Networks 74 4.3 Feature Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.4 Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.4.1 Step 1: Data preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.4.2 Step 2.1: Feature Detection and Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.4.3 Step 2.2: Vanishing Point Detection and Principal Distance Estimation 80 4.4.4 Step 3: Scene Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.5 Comparison with Three Other State-of-the-Art SfM Workflows . . . . 81 4.5 Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.7 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.8 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.A Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5 Fully automated pose estimation of historical images 97 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.2.1 Image Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.2.2 Feature Detection and Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.3 Data Preparation: Image Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 5.3.1 Experiment and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.3.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3.2.1 Layer Extraction Approach (LEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3.2.2 Attentive Deep Local Features (DELF) Approach . . . . . . 105 5.3.3 Results and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.4 Camera Pose Estimation of Historical Images Using Photogrammetric Methods 110 5.4.1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.4.1.1 Benchmark Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.4.1.2 Retrieval Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.4.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.4.2.1 Feature Detection and Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5.4.2.2 Geometric Verification and Camera Pose Estimation . . . . . 116 5.4.3 Results and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.5 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.A Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 6 Related publications 129 6.1 Photogrammetric analysis of historical image repositores for virtual reconstruction in the field of digital humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 6.2 Feature matching of historical images based on geometry of quadrilaterals . . 131 6.3 Geo-information technologies for a multimodal access on historical photographs and maps for research and communication in urban history . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.4 An automated pipeline for a browser-based, city-scale mobile 4D VR application based on historical images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.5 Software and content design of a browser-based mobile 4D VR application to explore historical city architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 7 Synthesis 135 7.1 Summary of the developed workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 7.1.1 Error assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 7.1.2 Accuracy estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 7.1.3 Transfer of the workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 7.2 Developments and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 8 Appendix 149 8.1 Setup for the feature matching evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 8.2 Transformation from COLMAP coordinate system to OpenGL . . . . . . . . 150 References 151 List of Figures 165 List of Tables 167 List of Abbreviations 169Der andauernde Prozess der Digitalisierung in Archiven ermöglicht den Zugriff auf immer größer werdende historische Bildbestände. In vielen Repositorien können die Bilder typischerweise in einer Listen- oder Gallerieansicht betrachtet werden. Aufgrund der steigenden Zahl an digitalisierten Objekten wird diese Art der Visualisierung zunehmend unübersichtlicher. Es kann u.a. nur noch schwierig bestimmt werden, wie viele Fotografien ein bestimmtes Motiv zeigen. Des Weiteren können räumliche Informationen bisher nur über Metadaten vermittelt werden. Im Rahmen der Arbeit wird an der automatisierten Ermittlung und Bereitstellung dieser räumlichen Daten geforscht. Erweiterte Visualisierungsmöglichkeiten machen diese Informationen Wissenschaftlern sowie Bürgern einfacher zugänglich. Diese Visualisierungen können u.a. in drei-dimensionalen (3D), Virtual Reality (VR) oder Augmented Reality (AR) Anwendungen präsentiert werden. Allerdings erfordern Anwendungen dieser Art die Schätzung des Standpunktes des Fotografen. Im photogrammetrischen Kontext spricht man dabei von der Schätzung der inneren und äußeren Orientierungsparameter der Kamera. Zur Bestimmung der Orientierungsparameter für Einzelbilder existieren die etablierten Verfahren der direkten linearen Transformation oder des photogrammetrischen Rückwärtsschnittes. Dazu muss eine Zuordnung von gemessenen Objektpunkten zu ihren homologen Bildpunkten erfolgen. Das ist für einzelne Bilder realisierbar, wird aber aufgrund der großen Menge an Bildern in Archiven schnell nicht mehr praktikabel. Für größere Bildverbände wird im photogrammetrischen Kontext somit üblicherweise das Verfahren Structure-from-Motion (SfM) gewählt, das die simultane Schätzung der inneren sowie der äußeren Orientierung der Kameras ermöglicht. Während diese Methode vor allem für sequenzielle, gegenwärtige Bildverbände gute Ergebnisse liefert, stellt die Anwendung auf unsortierten historischen Fotografien eine große Herausforderung dar. Im Rahmen der Arbeit, die sich größtenteils auf Szenarien stadträumlicher terrestrischer Fotografien beschränkt, werden zuerst die Gründe für das Scheitern des SfM Prozesses identifiziert. Im Gegensatz zu sequenziellen Bildverbänden zeigen Bildpaare aus unterschiedlichen zeitlichen Epochen oder von unterschiedlichen Standpunkten enorme Differenzen hinsichtlich der Szenendarstellung. Dies können u.a. Unterschiede in der Beleuchtungssituation, des Aufnahmezeitpunktes oder Schäden am originalen analogen Medium sein. Da für die Merkmalszuordnung in SfM automatisiert homologe Bildpunkte in Bildpaaren bzw. Bildsequenzen gefunden werden müssen, stellen diese Bilddifferenzen die größte Schwierigkeit dar. Um verschiedene Verfahren der Merkmalszuordnung testen zu können, ist es notwendig einen vororientierten historischen Datensatz zu verwenden. Da solch ein Benchmark-Datensatz noch nicht existierte, werden im Rahmen der Arbeit durch manuelle Selektion homologer Bildpunkte acht historische Bildtripel (entspricht 24 Bildpaaren) orientiert, die anschließend genutzt werden, um neu publizierte Verfahren bei der Merkmalszuordnung zu evaluieren. Die ersten verwendeten Methoden, die algorithmische Verfahren zur Merkmalszuordnung nutzen (z.B. Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT)), liefern nur für wenige Bildpaare des Datensatzes zufriedenstellende Ergebnisse. Erst durch die Verwendung von Verfahren, die neuronale Netze zur Merkmalsdetektion und Merkmalsbeschreibung einsetzen, können für einen großen Teil der historischen Bilder des Benchmark-Datensatzes zuverlässig homologe Bildpunkte gefunden werden. Die Bestimmung der Kameraorientierung erfordert zusätzlich zur Merkmalszuordnung eine initiale Schätzung der Kamerakonstante, die jedoch im Zuge der Digitalisierung des analogen Bildes nicht mehr direkt zu ermitteln ist. Eine mögliche Lösung dieses Problems ist die Verwendung von drei Fluchtpunkten, die automatisiert im historischen Bild detektiert werden und aus denen dann die Kamerakonstante bestimmt werden kann. Die Kombination aus Schätzung der Kamerakonstante und robuster Merkmalszuordnung wird in den SfM Prozess integriert und erlaubt die Bestimmung der Kameraorientierung historischer Bilder. Auf Grundlage dieser Ergebnisse wird ein Arbeitsablauf konzipiert, der es ermöglicht, Archive mittels dieses photogrammetrischen Verfahrens direkt an 3D-Anwendungen anzubinden. Eine Suchanfrage in Archiven erfolgt üblicherweise über Schlagworte, die dann als Metadaten dem entsprechenden Objekt zugeordnet sein müssen. Eine Suche nach einem bestimmten Gebäude generiert deshalb u.a. Treffer zu Zeichnungen, Gemälden, Veranstaltungen, Innen- oder Detailansichten. Für die erfolgreiche Anwendung von SfM im stadträumlichen Kontext interessiert jedoch v.a. die fotografische Außenansicht des Gebäudes. Während die Bilder für ein einzelnes Gebäude von Hand sortiert werden können, ist dieser Prozess für mehrere Gebäude zu zeitaufwendig. Daher wird in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Competence Center for Scalable Data Services and Solutions (ScaDS) ein Ansatz entwickelt, um historische Fotografien über Bildähnlichkeiten zu filtern. Dieser ermöglicht zuverlässig über die Auswahl eines oder mehrerer Suchbilder die Suche nach inhaltsähnlichen Ansichten. Durch die Verknüpfung der inhaltsbasierten Suche mit dem SfM Ansatz ist es möglich, automatisiert für eine große Anzahl historischer Fotografien die Kameraparameter zu bestimmen. Das entwickelte Verfahren stellt eine deutliche Verbesserung im Vergleich zu kommerziellen und open-source SfM Standardlösungen dar. Das Ergebnis dieser Arbeit ist ein kompletter Arbeitsablauf vom Archiv bis zur Applikation, der automatisch Bilder filtert und diese orientiert. Die zu erwartende Genauigkeit von wenigen Metern für die Kameraposition sind ausreichend für die dargestellten Anwendungen in dieser Arbeit, bieten aber weiteres Verbesserungspotential. Eine Anbindung an Archive, die über Schnittstellen automatisch Fotografien und Positionen austauschen soll, befindet sich bereits in der Entwicklung. Dadurch ist es möglich, innere und äußere Orientierungsparameter direkt von der historischen Fotografie als Metadaten abzurufen, was neue Forschungsfelder eröffnet.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Thesis structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Historical image data and archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Structure-from-Motion for historical images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.2 Selection of images and preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.3 Feature detection, feature description and feature matching . . . . . . 6 1.3.3.1 Feature detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.3.2 Feature description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3.3.3 Feature matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.3.4 Geometric verification and robust estimators . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.3.5 Joint methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Precomputed radiance transfer for X3D based mixed reality applications

We present a lightweight framework composed of two extensions to introduce precomputed radiance transfer (PRT) to X3D. Depending on the basis function, PRT is used to simulate shading, complex light transfer and effects like subsurface scattering and caustics in real time by projecting incident light and transfer functions into frequency space, which allows the solution of the integration of the rendering equation through a simple dot product. Light transfer from incident to transferred radiance thus becomes a matter of solving dot products of coefficient vectors, which can be easily evaluated on the GPU. In this paper, we identify the minimal set of components needed for an X3D application to use spherical harmonic based PRT, and discuss how further enhancements to PRT can be implemented, like new basis functions and other features