Player experience and deceptive expectations of difficulty adaptation in digital games

Increasingly, digital games are including adaptive features that adjust the level of difficulty to match the skills of individual players. The intention is to improve and prolong the player experience by allowing the player to have the feeling of challenge without it being overwhelming and leading to repeated failure and frustration. Previous work has shown that player experience is indeed improved by such adaptations but also that the player experience can be improved by simply claiming such an adaptation is present even when it is not. It is therefore possible that claims about adaptations and the actual adaptations could interact and not lead to the intended outcomes for the players or worse disappoint players. This paper reports on two studies that were conducted to experimentally investigate the interaction between game adaptations and player information about adaptations on the player experience, specifically their sense of immersion in the game. For this, two games were developed using two different kinds of adaptations to adjust difficulty based on players’ performance in the game. Participants were provided with information about game adaptations independently of whether the adaptations were present. The results suggest that players felt more immersed in the game when told that the game adapts to them, regardless of whether the adaptation was present in the game or not. This effect was observed in both games despite their different adaptations and it remained prominent even during longer gaming sessions. These findings demonstrate that players’ knowledge of adaptations influences their experience independently of adaptations. In this particular context, the knowledge reinforced the experience of the adaptations. This suggests that, at least in some circumstances, developers do not need to be concerned about negative effects of telling players about in-game adaptations

Adaptive Technologies in Digital Games: The Influence of Perception of Adaptivity on Immersion

Digital games with adaptive technologies offer more tailored experiences to their players, as gameplay is based on the players' performances and behaviours in the game. This could potentially lead to better gaming experiences. Though it is also possible that just the mere expectation of clever AI could affect players' first impressions and subsequently their perceived experiences. At the present moment, there is little empirical evidence supporting this claim. This research aims to gather empirical evidence to test the hypothesis that players' expectations of an adaptive digital game have an effect on their immersion. For this, three studies were conducted. First, preferences were explored as a form of expectations that could influence immersion. The results show no effect of preferences with regards to the visual perspective on immersion. A more controlled manipulation in the form of game descriptions was then used in the subsequent experiments. Participants played a game without adaptive features while being told that the game was adapting to their performance. As a result, players who believed that the game had adaptive AI experienced higher levels of immersion than the players who were not aware of it. Similarly, when playing the game twice people felt more immersed in the session that was supposedly adapting to their behaviour, in spite of experiencing the same gameplay as in the other session. This effect was then explored in more detail in games with adaptive features. For this, two games were developed to adapt in two distinct ways to players' performance in the game. Immersion was affected differently depending on the precision of information about these adaptive features. More detailed information prompts players to change their tactics to incorporate the adaptation into their play and experience the benefits of this feature. Merely being aware of the adaptation leads to more immersion, regardless of its presence in the game. Similarly, the presence of an adaptive feature in the game leads to heightened sense of immersion, which is enhanced by the precision of information players receive about it. Evidence also suggests that this effect is durable. Overall, this research provides empirical evidence to support the hypothesis that players' expectations of adaptive features in single-player games have a positive effect on immersion. This is a valuable contribution to the theoretical understanding of immersion, while it also provides some insights into the potential precautions that should be considered when conducting experiments into player experience in the lab and `in the wild', both in academic studies and during player testing sessions run by game developers

Videogames, persuasion & deceit

Tese de doutoramento, Informática (Engenharia Informática), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2014Videogames have grown to be one of the most important forms of entertainment. Designers and developers constantly strive to innovate and include mechanics which provide the best experiences to consumers. Games typically integrate a diversity of instruments and mechanisms (among these, persuasive technology) which attempt to offer players the best experience possible, leading them to a state of optimal experience. The relation between these instruments and their effects on player experience suffer from scarce documentation and empirical sustainment, resulting in a lack of insight regarding how players are affected by them. This thesis documents how we addressed these research opportunities, tied videogames, persuasive technology and players as well as driven existing knowledge about persuasion forward. This research’s goal concerns the gathering of empirical evidence showing that different types of persuasive instruments can be employed in videogames to steer players towards a state of optimal experience. Our analysis focuses exclusively on how these mechanisms impact on the player’s performance and emotional state. In addition to this goal, we explored alternative persuasion strategies which are often disregarded due to existing and preconceived negative coverage – deceit. This effort lead us to cover how deceitful persuasive interventions are designed, in what circumstances they are employed and the relation between them and the videogames domain. Treading throughout these research goals resulted in a set of theoretical and empirical contributions tying both persuasive technology and videogames. We present player experience data supporting the role of persuasive technology in attaining an optimal experience state, addressing both performance and physiological evidence. We also a model, created with the intent of supporting designers and developers in establishing deceitful persuasive interventions. This model is put into practice, allowing us to test and show that deceitful and real persuasive instruments can have equivalent effects on player experience.Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT

Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

The impact of video gaming on managers\u27 adaptive leadership skills: do millennials have an advantage?

The aging Baby Boomer Generation, coupled with the large coming of age Millennial Generation and the need for more adaptive and flexible employees in business, is presenting companies with a challenge of how to develop individuals in leadership positions within their organizations to properly demonstrate and implement adaptive leadership attributes. This study compared data previously gathered by the participating organization from individuals composed of multiple generations currently in leadership positions attending a leadership orientation course. Data were collected using a selected instrument measuring adaptive leadership skills. The focus of this study was to determine if the Millennial Generation has gained more experience with situations playing video games and, if so, if this resulted in enhanced adaptive leadership skills. Potentially acquiring leadership, organizational, and social skills, while learning to accomplish tasks in a rapidly changing and volatile simulated environment in a video game, could have a positive impact on the Millennials’ ability to employ adaptive leadership. The learning outcomes from video game play are accomplished either as a part of the individual video game design or via Internet games for multiple players. The applicability of this study could provide direction on how to better prepare more appropriate learning solutions to develop individuals as they move into leadership roles. The resulting analysis generated data finding no significant relationship between birth generations and scores from an instrument measuring adaptive leadership, or with the amount of video game play by generation. There was a positive relationship found between birth generation and the amount of video game play

Intentional Friction in the User Interface of Digital Games

Embora projetar fricção intencionalmente em interfaces do utilizador de jogos possa ser uma estratégia adequada para desafiar as crenças dos jogadores e estimular a reflexão, as práticas convencionais de interface do utilizador são frequentemente influenciadas por um paradigma abrangente de facilidade de uso e prazer. Esta dissertação investiga como designers podem empregar fricção intencional em interfaces do utilizador de jogos digitais para criar experiências significativas e inspirar reflexão nos seus jogadores. Primeiro, revimos a literatura para enquadrar o que constitui elementos de interface no game design, o paradigma de usabilidade e diversão e outras perspetivas que oferecem contexto para o uso da fricção como estratégia. Depois, exploramos instâncias de jogos que usam fricção na interface do utilizador quando apropriado como estratégia para expressar um ponto de vista, desafiar sistemas atuais ou fomentar a reflexão crítica. O ponto de partida para nossas observações são os sete princípios de design de Donald Norman e as heurísticas de usabilidade de Jakob Nielsen. Como resultado, identificamos seis estratégias de fricção intencional distintas. Em seguida, realizamos duas sessões de workshop de co-criação com um total de sete participantes com experiência em interface de utilizador ou design de jogos para identificar estratégias e perspetivas adicionais. As estratégias coletadas foram reunidas numa ferramenta de cartas. Por fim, realizamos uma sessão inicial de validação da ferramenta com quatro participantes com resultados promissores, sugerindo que as estratégias de fricção da ferramenta conseguiram impulsionar a expressividade como um componente importante do processo de discussão e ideação dos participantes. Embora este trabalho não esteja focado em coletar todas as abordagens de design de fricção indiscriminadamente, as estratégias identificadas sugerem técnicas mais subtis do que apenas enquadrar em reverso os princípios para criar um design amigável.  While intentionally designing friction in gaming user interfaces may be a suitable strategy for challenging players' beliefs and prompting reflection, conventional user interface practices are frequently influenced by an overarching paradigm of user-friendliness and enjoyment. This dissertation investigates how designers might employ intentional friction in digital game user interfaces to create meaningful experiences and inspire reflection in its players. First, we review the literature to frame what constitutes interface elements in game design, the user-friendly and enjoyment paradigm, and other perspectives that offer context to using friction as a strategy. Afterward, we explore game instances that use user interface friction when appropriate as a strategy to express a point of view, to challenge current systems, or to foment critical reflection. The starting point for our observations is Donald Norman's seven design principles and Jakob Nielsen's usability heuristics. As a result, we identify six distinct intentional friction strategies. Next, we ran two co-creation workshop sessions with a total of seven participants with user interface or game design backgrounds to identify additional strategies and perspectives. The strategies gathered were collected in a deck-based tool. Finally, we ran an initial tool validation session with four participants with promising results, suggesting that the tool's friction strategies were able to drive expressiveness as an important component of the participant's discussion and ideation process. Although this work is not focused on collecting all friction design approaches indiscriminately, the identified strategies suggest more nuanced techniques than just framing the principles to create a friendly design in reverse

Detecting player’s divided attention state during gameplay

Serious games for health and teaching are becoming more common. These games have been evolving their methods of diagnosing, treating and teaching; however, not much previous work has been done relatively to the detection of the player’s attention state. This dissertation presents the design and testing of a system for the detection of divided attention state in players. The design of the system makes use of general game mechanics and events to analyse the player’s performance and, from that detect whether the player is dividing attention with another task. The proposed system was tested on a game designed and developed in the context of this dissertation. The obtained results show that the system is able to use performance features to identify the divided attention state of the player. This system is expected to help developers improve their games, making them more responsive, and also be a framework of development for other systems, specifically, for the detection of the attention state of the player.Os jogos sérios para a saúde e ensino estão-se a tornar mais comuns. Estes jogos têm evoluído os seus métodos de diagnosticar, tratar, e ensinar, não havendo, ainda assim, muito trabalho anterior relativamente à deteção do estado de atenção do jogador. Esta dissertação apresenta o desenvolvimento e validação de um sistema para detetar quando o estado de atenção do jogador é atenção dividida. O sistema utiliza mecânicas gerais e eventos presentes em jogos para analisar o desempenho do jogador e posteriormente detetar se o jogador está a dividir a sua atenção com outra tarefa. O sistema é testado com um jogo desenvolvido para o contexto desta dissertação. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o sistema é capaz de usar as metricas de desempenho do jogo para identificar a divisão da atenção por parte do jogador. O sistema pode ajudar designers a melhorar os seus jogos, tornado-os mais responsivos, e também pode ser uma framework para o desenvolvimento de outros sistemas, específicamente, para a deteção do estado da atenção do jogador

Mastering uncertainty: A predictive processing account of enjoying uncertain success in video game play

Why do we seek out and enjoy uncertain success in playing games? Game designers and researchers suggest that games whose challenges match player skills afford engaging experiences of achievement, competence, or effectance—of doing well. Yet, current models struggle to explain why such balanced challenges best afford these experiences and do not straightforwardly account for the appeal of high- and low-challenge game genres like Idle and Soulslike games. In this article, we show that Predictive Processing (PP) provides a coherent formal cognitive framework which can explain the fun in tackling game challenges with uncertain success as the dynamic process of reducing uncertainty surprisingly efficiently. In gameplay as elsewhere, people enjoy doing better than expected, which can track learning progress. In different forms, balanced, Idle, and Soulslike games alike afford regular accelerations of uncertainty reduction. We argue that this model also aligns with a popular practitioner model, Raph Koster’s Theory of Fun for Game Design, and can unify currently differentially modelled gameplay motives around competence and curiosity

Our Space: Being a Responsible Citizen of the Digital World

Our Space is a set of curricular materials designed to encourage high school students to reflect on the ethical dimensions of their participation in new media environments. Through role-playing activities and reflective exercises, students are asked to consider the ethical responsibilities of other people, and whether and how they behave ethically themselves online. These issues are raised in relation to five core themes that are highly relevant online: identity, privacy, authorship and ownership, credibility, and participation.Our Space was co-developed by The Good Play Project and Project New Media Literacies (established at MIT and now housed at University of Southern California's Annenberg School for Communications and Journalism). The Our Space collaboration grew out of a shared interest in fostering ethical thinking and conduct among young people when exercising new media skills