On the role of high frequency waves in ocean altimetry

This work mines a coastal and open ocean air-sea interaction field experiment data set where the goals are to refine satellite retrieval of wind, wind stress, and sea level using a microwave radar altimeter. The data were collected from a low-flying aircraft using a sensor suite designed to measure the surface waves, radar backscatter, the atmospheric flow, and turbulent fluxes within the marine boundary layer. This uncommon ensemble provides the means to address several specific altimeter-related topics. First, we examine and document the impact that non wind-driven gravity wave variability, e.g. swell, has upon the commonly-invoked direct relationship between altimeter backscatter and near surface wind speed. The demonstrated impact is larger in magnitude and more direct than previously suggested. The study also isolates the wind-dependence of short-scale slope variance and suggests its magnitude is somewhat lower than shown elsewhere while a second-order dependence on long waves is also evident. A second study assesses the hypothesis that wind-aligned swell interacts with the atmospheric boundary flow leading to a depressed level of turbulence. Cases of reduced drag coefficient at moderate wind speeds were in evidence within the data set, and buoy observations indicate that swell was present and a likely control during these events. Coincidentally, short-scale wave roughness was also depressed suggesting decreased wind stress. Attempts to confirm the theory failed, however, due to numerous limitations in the quantity and quality of the data in hand. A lesson learned is that decoupling atmospheric stability and wave impacts in field campaigns requires both a very large amount of data as well as vertical resolution of fluxes within the first 10--20 m of the surface

A theory of microwave apparent temperature over the ocean

In the microwave region combined active (scatterometer) and passive (radiometer) remote sensors over the ocean show promise of providing surface wind speeds and weather information to the oceanographer and meteorologist. This has aroused great interest in the investigation of the scattering of waves from the sea surface. A composite surface scattering theory is investigated. The two-scale scattering theory proposed by Semyonov was specifically extended to compute the emmision and scattering characteristics of ocean surfaces. The effects of clouds and rain on the radiometer and scatterometer observations are also investigated using horizontally stratified model atmospheres with rough sea surfaces underneath. Various cloud and rain models proposed by meteorologist were employed to determine the rise in the microwave temperature when viewing downward through these model atmospheres. For heavy rain-fall rates the effects of scattering on the radiative transfer process are included

Application of Reflected Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS-R) Signals in the Estimation of Sea Roughness Effects in Microwave Radiometry

In February-March 2009 NASA JPL conducted an airborne field campaign using the Passive Active L-band System (PALS) and the Ku-band Polarimetric Scatterometer (PolSCAT) collecting measurements of brightness temperature and near surface wind speeds. Flights were conducted over a region of expected high-speed winds in the Atlantic Ocean, for the purposes of algorithm development for salinity retrievals. Wind speeds encountered were in the range of 5 to 25 m/s during the two weeks deployment. The NASA-Langley GPS delay-mapping receiver (DMR) was also flown to collect GPS signals reflected from the ocean surface and generate post-correlation power vs. delay measurements. This data was used to estimate ocean surface roughness and a strong correlation with brightness temperature was found. Initial results suggest that reflected GPS signals, using small low-power instruments, will provide an additional source of data for correcting brightness temperature measurements for the purpose of sea surface salinity retrievals

Étude de la rétrodiffusion des surfaces d'eau en bande Ka à faible incidence

The evolution of the altimetric techniques from Ku-band to Ka-band and the wide swath al-timetry in the context of the SWOT mission (« Surface Water Ocean Topography », CNES/NASA) raises new scientific questions about the validity of the backscattering models from water sur-faces in such a frequency band and errors in estimating water heights from time-evolving water surfaces. A backscattering model (GO4) adapted to the SWOT configuration is introduced. It preserves the accuracy of the referencial Physical Optics model while maintaining the simplicity of the clas-sical Optical Geometrics model. In addition to the classical slope parameter, it introduces another parameter called as « effective curvature » (msc). This model allows the inverson of the surface slope and curvature parameters under certain conditions which are developped in this manus-cript. The joint validity of the backscattering models in Ka-band and from water surfaces is che-cked from controlled wind-wave tank radar measurements . In a last part, the temporal properties of the backscattered signal is studied, in particular the correlation time and the Doppler shift induced by waves motion. Influence of the latters on the non focused SAR synthesis is studied in the context of the SWOT system.L’évolution des techniques altimétriques de la bande Ku Nadir vers la bande Ka et l’interféro-métrie large fauchée proche Nadir dans le contexte de la mission SWOT (« Surface Water Ocean Topography », CNES/NASA) soulève de nouvelles questions scientifiques quant à la validité des modèles de rétrodiffusion des surfaces d’eau dans cette bande de fréquence et les erreurs sur les estimations de hauteurs d’eau dues aux mouvements de ces surfaces au cours du temps. Un modèle de rétrodiffusion (GO4) adapté à la configuration SWOT est présenté. Il conserve la précision du modèle de référence de l’Optique Physique tout en gardant la simplicité du modèle plus couramment employé de l’Optique Géométrique. En plus du paramètre classique de pente, il introduit un paramètre supplémentaire, dit de « courbure effective » (msc). Le modèle permet l’inversion des paramètres de pente et de courbure de la surface sous certaines conditions déve-loppées dans ce manuscrit. La validité des modèles conjoints de rétrodiffusion en bande Ka et de surface d’eau a été vérifiée sur des mesures radar effectuées en soufflerie dans un environnement contrôlé. Dans une dernière partie, les propriétés temporelles du signal rétrodiffusé ont été étudiées, en particulier le temps de corrélation et le décalage Doppler induit par le mouvement des vagues. Nous étudions l’influence de ces quantités sur les performances de la synthèse SAR non focalisée du système SWOT

On the Groupiness and Intermittency of Oceanic Whitecaps

The enhancement of wave breaking activity during wave group passage is investigated using coherent field observations of the instantaneous sea surface elevation and whitecap coverage from platform-based stereo video measurements in the central North Sea. Passing wave groups are shown to be associated with a two to threefold enhancement in the probability distribution of total whitecap coverage W whereas the enhancement of active whitecap coverage WA is approximately fivefold. Breaking time scales and intermittency characteristics are also investigated with the inclusion of a secondary data set of W and WA observations collected during a research cruise in the North Pacific. The time scale analysis suggests a universal periodicity in wave breaking activity within a representative sea-surface area encompassing approximately one dominant wave crest. The breaking periodicity is shown to be closely linked to the peak period of the dominant wave components, suggesting that long-wave modulation of wave breaking is a predominant mechanism controlling the intermittency of wave breaking across scales.publishedVersio

An investigation into the dynamical and statistical properties of dominant ocean surface waves using close-range remote sensing

Denne avhandlingen er basert på forskningsresultat som behandler statistiske og dynamiske egenskaper av dominante vinddrevne overflatebølger i åpent hav. Med uttrykket dominante bølger refererer vi her til de største bølgene, med størst energi, i en gitt sjøtilstand. Bølgedrevne prosesser er viktige både i klimasammenheng via atmosfære--hav interaksjon som drives i stor grad av bølgebrytning, samt for kommersiell og rekreasjonell offshorevirksomhet p.g.a. risikoen for å bli utsatt for f.eks. ekstreme enkeltbølger. Både bølgebrytning og ekstrembølgestatistikk er i skrivende stund ufullstendig representert i teoretiske og numeriske modeller. Arbeidet som presenteres i denne avhandlingen undersøker de ovennevnte temaene ved bruk av bølgeobservasjoner som er primært samlet inn på Ekofiskfeltet i den sentrale delen av Nordsjøen. Observasjonsdatasettene består av en langtidstidsserie av laser-altimetermålinger og stereoskopiske videodata fra Ekofisk, samt videomålinger av brytende bølger fra et forskningstokt i nordre Stillehavet. Forskningsresultatene er presentert i artikkelform med to publiserte verk og ett innlevert manuskript. Det blir påvist en tydelig forbindelse mellom økt bølgebrytning og dominante bølgegrupper, et resultat som tidligere har blitt påvist i laboratorie- og modelleksperiment, men sjeldent ved bruk av feltobservasjoner. Tredimensjonale stereo-rekonstruksjoner viser også at ekstreme bølgekammer, både brytende og ikke-brytende, følger nylig utviklet teori om ikke-lineær bølgegruppedynamikk. Dette funnet har konsekvenser f.eks. for estimering av geometriske og kinematiske bølgeegenskaper såsom steilhet og kamhastighet fra endimensjonale tidsseriemålinger. Som følge av en langtidsanalyse av endimensjonal bølgestatistikk blir det vist at enrettet, langkammet og bratt sjø mest sannsynlig leder til ekstreme enkeltbølger med statistiske egenskaper som avviker systematisk fra ordinære statistiske modeller. Tredimensjonal, kortsiktig tid-rom-statistikk av ekstreme bølgekammer blir også undersøkt v.h.a. stereomålingene fra Ekofisk. Her blir det vist at statistiske modeller utvidet fra endimensjonale til tredimensjonale bølgefelt i snitt er velegnet til å beskrive forekomsten av de høyeste bølgekammene, spesielt for relativt store tid-rom segment.The research presented in this thesis characterizes statistical and dynamical aspects of dominant wind-generated surface gravity waves inferred from field observations in intermediate-to-deep water. Dominant waves are the most energetic waves in a sea state, and as such, understanding their behavior is important in both engineering and geophysical contexts. Large waves impart considerable impact forces on marine structures such as oil and gas platforms and offshore wind turbines, and these forces may multiply manyfold when waves break. Wave breaking in deep water, often referred to as whitecapping, is also a key, though incompletely understood, process regulating the transfer of momentum, gas and heat across the air-sea interface, and must thus be accurately parameterized in large-scale weather and climate models. Current theory holds that the wave breaking process is closely linked kinematically and dynamically to the group structure inherent in ocean surface wave fields. Wave group dynamics is also believed to govern the characteristic shape and motion of so-called extreme or rogue waves, whose correct statistical description is central to many offshore activities. The work presented herein shows, using state-of-the-art stereoscopic imaging techniques employed at the Ekofisk platform complex in the central North Sea, that large-scale wave breaking activity in the open ocean is strongly enhanced in dominant wave groups. The topic of wave group-modulated wave breaking has received considerable attention in the past two decades from theoretical, numerical and laboratory perspectives; however, quantitative field studies of the phenomenon remain comparatively rare. The current results also support the general notion that the dominant waves in a given sea state regulate the breaking of shorter waves. The statistics of extreme wave crest elevations is investigated using a novel long-term laser altimeter data set, also located at the Ekofisk field. The validity of the extreme values is verified using a newly developed despiking methodology, and the quality controlled data set, which covers storm events over an 18-year period, is used to investigate the effects of wave steepness and directionality on crest height statistics. Narrow directional spread combined with high wave steepness is found to lead to crest height statistics that deviate the most from standard linear and second-order formulations. Finally, geometric wave shape and crest speed dynamics are analyzed for the highest wave crests encountered in three-dimensional, spatially and temporally resolved segments of the stereo-reconstructed sea surface fields. The directly measured crest steepness is found to conform to the classical breaking limit of Stokes, whereas crest steepness estimated from one-dimensional time series measurements using the linear gravity-wave dispersion relation are systematically higher. This may be at least in part explained by the observation that the directly measured crest speed just before, during and after the moment of maximum crest elevation slows down compared to the linear gravity-wave phase speed estimate. For the first time, the crest speed slowdown is shown with field measurements to apply to both breaking and non-breaking dominant wave crests.Doktorgradsavhandlin

Measurement of sea waves

Sea waves constitute a natural phenomenon with a great impact on human activities, and their monitoring is essential for meteorology, coastal safety, navigation, and renewable energy from the sea. Therefore, the main measurement techniques for their monitoring are here reviewed, including buoys, satellite observation, coastal radars, shipboard observation, and microseism analysis. For each technique, the measurement principle is briefly recalled, the degree of development is outlined, and trends are prospected. The complementarity of such techniques is also highlighted, and the need for further integration in local and global networks is stressed

Measurement of Sea Waves

Sea waves constitute a natural phenomenon with a great impact on human activities, and their monitoring is essential for meteorology, coastal safety, navigation, and renewable energy from the sea. Therefore, the main measurement techniques for their monitoring are here reviewed, including buoys, satellite observation, coastal radars, shipboard observation, and microseism analysis. For each technique, the measurement principle is briefly recalled, the degree of development is outlined, and trends are prospected. The complementarity of such techniques is also highlighted, and the need for further integration in local and global networks is stressed

Arctic Sea Ice Thickness Estimation from CryoSat-2 Satellite Data Using Machine Learning-Based Lead Detection

Satellite altimeters have been used to monitor Arctic sea ice thickness since the early 2000s. In order to estimate sea ice thickness from satellite altimeter data, leads (i.e., cracks between ice floes) should first be identified for the calculation of sea ice freeboard. In this study, we proposed novel approaches for lead detection using two machine learning algorithms: decision trees and random forest. CryoSat-2 satellite data collected in March and April of 2011-2014 over the Arctic region were used to extract waveform parameters that show the characteristics of leads, ice floes and ocean, including stack standard deviation, stack skewness, stack kurtosis, pulse peakiness and backscatter sigma-0. The parameters were used to identify leads in the machine learning models. Results show that the proposed approaches, with overall accuracy >90%, produced much better performance than existing lead detection methods based on simple thresholding approaches. Sea ice thickness estimated based on the machine learning-detected leads was compared to the averaged Airborne Electromagnetic (AEM)-bird data collected over two days during the CryoSat Validation experiment (CryoVex) field campaign in April 2011. This comparison showed that the proposed machine learning methods had better performance (up to r = 0.83 and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) = 0.29 m) compared to thickness estimation based on existing lead detection methods (RMSE = 0.86-0.93 m). Sea ice thickness based on the machine learning approaches showed a consistent decline from 2011-2013 and rebounded in 2014.open0

The Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document for the Derivation of Range and Range Distributions from Laser Pulse Waveform Analysis for Surface Elevations, Roughness, Slope, and Vegetation Heights

The primary purpose of the GLAS instrument is to detect ice elevation changes over time which are used to derive changes in ice volume. Other objectives include measuring sea ice freeboard, ocean and land surface elevation, surface roughness, and canopy heights over land. This Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) describes the theory and implementation behind the algorithms used to produce the level 1B products for waveform parameters and global elevation and the level 2 products that are specific to ice sheet, sea ice, land, and ocean elevations respectively. These output products, are defined in detail along with the associated quality, and the constraints, and assumptions used to derive them