Research progress on geosynchronous synthetic aperture radar

Based on its ability to obtain two-dimensional (2D) high-resolution images in all-time and all-weather conditions, spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has become an important remote sensing technique and the study of such systems has entered a period of vigorous development. Advanced imaging modes such as radar interferometry, tomography, and multi-static imaging, have been demonstrated. However, current in-orbit spaceborne SARs, which all operate in low Earth orbits, have relatively long revisit times ranging from several days to dozens of days, restricting their temporal sampling rate. Geosynchronous SAR (GEO SAR) is an active research area because it provides significant new capability, especially its much-improved temporal sampling. This paper reviews the research progress of GEO SAR technologies in detail. Two typical orbit schemes are presented, followed by the corresponding key issues, including system design, echo focusing, main disturbance factors, repeat-track interferometry, etc, inherent to these schemes. Both analysis and solution research of the above key issues are described. GEO SAR concepts involving multiple platforms are described, including the GEO SAR constellation, GEO-LEO/airborne/unmanned aerial vehicle bistatic SAR, and formation flying GEO SAR (FF-GEO SAR). Due to the high potential of FF-GEO SAR for three-dimensional (3D) deformation retrieval and coherence-based SAR tomography (TomoSAR), we have recently carried out some research related to FF-GEO SAR. This research, which is also discussed in this paper, includes developing a formation design method and an improved TomoSAR processing algorithm. It is found that GEO SAR will continue to be an active topic in the aspect of data processing and multi-platform concept in the near future

Geosynchronous synthetic aperture radar for Earth continuous observation missions

This thesis belongs to the field of remote sensing, particularly Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems from the space. These systems acquire the signals along the orbital track of one or more satellites where the transmitter and receiver are mounted, and coherently process the echoes in order to form the synthetic aperture. So, high resolution images can be obtained without using large arrays of antennas. The study presented in this thesis is centred in a novel concept in SAR, which is known as Geosynchronous SAR or GEOSAR, where the transmitter and/or receiver are placed in a platform in a geostationary orbit. In this case, the small relative motions between the satellite and the Earth surface are taken to get the necessary motion to form the synthetic aperture and focus the image. The main advantage of these systems with respect to the current technology (where LEO satellites with lower height are considered) is the possibility of permanently acquire images from the same region thanks to the small motion of the platform. Therefore, the different possibilities in the orbital design that offer this novel technology as well as the geometric resolutions obtained in the final image have been firstly studied. However, the use of geosynchronous satellites as illuminators results in slant ranges between 35.000-38.000 Km, which are much higher than the typical values obtained in LEOSAR, under 1.000 Km. Fortunately, the slow motion of the satellite makes possible large integration of pulses during minutes or even hours, reaching Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) levels in the order of LEO acquisitions without using high transmitted power or large antennas. Moreover, such large integration times, increases the length of the synthetic aperture to get the desired geometric resolutions of the image (in the order of a few meters or kilometres depending on the application). On the other hand, the use of long integration time presents some drawbacks such as the scene targets decorrelation, atmospheric artefacts due to the refraction index variations in the tropospheric layer, transmitter and receiver clock jitter, clutter decorrelation or orbital positioning errors; which will affect the correct focusing of the image. For this reason, a detailed theoretical study is presented in the thesis in order to characterize and model these artefacts. Several simulations have been performed in order to see their effects on the final images. Some techniques and algorithms to track and remove these errors from the focused image are presented and the improvement of the final focused image is analysed. Additionally, the real data from a GB-SAR (Ground-Based SAR) have been reused to simulate a long integration time acquisition and see the effects in the image focusing as well as to check the performance of compensation algorithms in the final image. Finally, a ground receiver to reuse signals of opportunity from a broadcasting satellite have been designed and manufactured. This hardware is expected to be an important tool for experimental testing in future GEOSAR analysis.Aquesta tesi s'emmarca dins de l'àmbit de la teledetecció, en particular, en els sistemes coneguts com a radar d'obertura sintètica (SAR en anglès) des de l'espai. Aquests sistemes adquireixen senyal al llarg de l'òrbita d'un o més satèl·lits on estan situats el transmissor i el receptor, i processa els ecos de forma coherent per a formar l'obertura sintètica. D'aquesta manera es poden aconseguir imatge d'alta resolució sense la necessitat d'emprar un array d'antenes molt gran. El treball realitzat en aquest estudi es centra en un nou concepte dins del món SAR que consisteix en l'ús de satèl·lits en òrbita geostacionària per a l'adquisició d'imatges, sistemes coneguts com a Geosynchronous SAR o GEOSAR. En aquest cas, els petits moviments relatius dels satèl·lits respecte de la superfície terrestre s'empren per a aconseguir el desplaçament necessari per a formar l'obertura sintètica i així obtenir la imatge. El principal avantatge d'aquests sistemes respecte a la tecnologia actual (on s'utilitzen satèl·lits en orbites més baixes LEO) és la possibilitat d'adquirir imatges d'una mateixa zona de forma permanent gràcies als petits desplaçaments del satèl·lit. Així doncs, en aquesta tesi s'estudien les diferents possibilitats en el disseny orbital que ofereixen aquests sistemes així com les resolucions d'imatge que s'obtindrien. Tot i així, l'ús de satèl·lits en òrbita geoestacionària, resulta en una distància entre el transmissor/receptor i l'escena entre 35000-38000 Km, molt més gran que les distàncies típiques en els sistemes LEO per sota dels 1000 Km. Tot i així, el moviment lent de les plataformes geostacionàries fa possible la integració de polsos durant minuts o hores, arribant a nivells acceptables de relació senyal a soroll (SNR) sense necessitat d'utilitzar potències transmeses i antenes massa grans. A més a més, aquesta llarga integració també permet assolir unes longituds d'obertura sintètica adients per a arribar a resolucions d'imatge desitjades (de l'ordre de pocs metres o kilòmetres segons l'aplicació). Malgrat això, l'ús de temps d'integració llargs té una sèrie d'inconvenients com poden ser la decorrelació dels blancs de l'escena, l'aparició d'artefactes atmosfèrics deguts als canvis d'índex de refracció en la troposfera, derives dels rellotges del transmissor i receptor, decorrelació del clutter o errors en el posicionament orbital, que poden afectar la correcta focalització de la imatge. Així doncs, en la tesi s'ha fet un detallat estudi teòric d'aquests problemes per tal de modelitzar-los i posteriorment s'han realitzat diverses simulacions per veure els seus efectes en una imatge. Diverses tècniques per a compensar aquests errors i millorar la qualitat de la imatge també s'han estudiat al llarg de la tesi. Per altra banda, dades reals d'un GB-SAR (SAR en una base terrestre) s'han reutilitzat per adaptar-les a una possible adquisició de llarga durada i veure així de forma experimental com afecta la llarga integració en les imatges i com millora l'enfocament després d'aplicar els algoritmes de compensació. Per últim, en la tesi es presenta un sistema receptor terrestre per a poder realitzar un anàlisi experimental del cas GEOSAR utilitzant un il·luminador d'oportunitat. Els primers passos en el disseny i la fabricació del hardware també es presenten en aquesta tes

Geosynchronous synthetic aperture radar : design and applications

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging from geosynchronous orbit has significant potential advantages over conventional low-Earth orbit (LEO) radars, but also challenges to overcome. This thesis investigates both active and passive geosynchronous SAR configurations, presenting their different features and advantages. Following a system design trade-off that involved phase uncertainties, link budget, frequency and integration time, an L band bi-static configuration with 8-hour integration time that reuses the signal from a non-cooperative transmitter has been presented as a suitable solution. Cranfield Space Research Centre looked into this configuration and proposed the GeoSAR concept, an L band bi-static SAR based on the concept by Prati et al. (1998). It flies along a circular ground track orbit, reuses the signal coming from a noncooperative transmitter in GEO and achieves a spatial resolution of about 100 m. The present research contributes to the GeoSAR concept exploring the implications due to the 8-hour integration time and providing insights about its performance and its possible fields of application. Targets such as canopies change their backscattered phase on timescales of seconds due to their motion. On longer time scales, changes in dielectric properties of targets, Earth tides and perturbations in the structure of the atmosphere contribute to generate phase fluctuations in the collected signals. These phenomena bring temporal decorrelation and cause a reduction in SAR coherent integration gain. They have to be compensated for if useful images are to be provided. A SAR azimuth simulator has been developed to study the influence of temporal decorrelation on GeoSAR point spread function. The analysis shows that ionospheric delay is the major source of decorrelation; other effects, such as tropospheric delay and Earth tides, have to be dealt with but appear to be easier to handle. Two different options for GeoSAR interferometry have been discussed. The system is well suited to differential interferometry, due to the short perpendicular baseline induced by the geometry. A GeoSAR has advantages over a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) SAR system to monitor processes with significant variability over daily or shorter timescales (e.g. soil moisture variation). This potential justifies further study of the concept.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

Geosynchronous synthetic aperture radar : design and applications

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging from geosynchronous orbit has significant potential advantages over conventional low-Earth orbit (LEO) radars, but also challenges to overcome. This thesis investigates both active and passive geosynchronous SAR configurations, presenting their different features and advantages. Following a system design trade-off that involved phase uncertainties, link budget, frequency and integration time, an L band bi-static configuration with 8-hour integration time that reuses the signal from a non-cooperative transmitter has been presented as a suitable solution. Cranfield Space Research Centre looked into this configuration and proposed the GeoSAR concept, an L band bi-static SAR based on the concept by Prati et al. (1998). It flies along a circular ground track orbit, reuses the signal coming from a noncooperative transmitter in GEO and achieves a spatial resolution of about 100 m. The present research contributes to the GeoSAR concept exploring the implications due to the 8-hour integration time and providing insights about its performance and its possible fields of application. Targets such as canopies change their backscattered phase on timescales of seconds due to their motion. On longer time scales, changes in dielectric properties of targets, Earth tides and perturbations in the structure of the atmosphere contribute to generate phase fluctuations in the collected signals. These phenomena bring temporal decorrelation and cause a reduction in SAR coherent integration gain. They have to be compensated for if useful images are to be provided. A SAR azimuth simulator has been developed to study the influence of temporal decorrelation on GeoSAR point spread function. The analysis shows that ionospheric delay is the major source of decorrelation; other effects, such as tropospheric delay and Earth tides, have to be dealt with but appear to be easier to handle. Two different options for GeoSAR interferometry have been discussed. The system is well suited to differential interferometry, due to the short perpendicular baseline induced by the geometry. A GeoSAR has advantages over a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) SAR system to monitor processes with significant variability over daily or shorter timescales (e.g. soil moisture variation). This potential justifies further study of the concept.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

Elevation and Deformation Extraction from TomoSAR

3D SAR tomography (TomoSAR) and 4D SAR differential tomography (Diff-TomoSAR) exploit multi-baseline SAR data stacks to provide an essential innovation of SAR Interferometry for many applications, sensing complex scenes with multiple scatterers mapped into the same SAR pixel cell. However, these are still influenced by DEM uncertainty, temporal decorrelation, orbital, tropospheric and ionospheric phase distortion and height blurring. In this thesis, these techniques are explored. As part of this exploration, the systematic procedures for DEM generation, DEM quality assessment, DEM quality improvement and DEM applications are first studied. Besides, this thesis focuses on the whole cycle of systematic methods for 3D & 4D TomoSAR imaging for height and deformation retrieval, from the problem formation phase, through the development of methods to testing on real SAR data. After DEM generation introduction from spaceborne bistatic InSAR (TanDEM-X) and airborne photogrammetry (Bluesky), a new DEM co-registration method with line feature validation (river network line, ridgeline, valley line, crater boundary feature and so on) is developed and demonstrated to assist the study of a wide area DEM data quality. This DEM co-registration method aligns two DEMs irrespective of the linear distortion model, which improves the quality of DEM vertical comparison accuracy significantly and is suitable and helpful for DEM quality assessment. A systematic TomoSAR algorithm and method have been established, tested, analysed and demonstrated for various applications (urban buildings, bridges, dams) to achieve better 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging results. These include applying Cosmo-Skymed X band single-polarisation data over the Zipingpu dam, Dujiangyan, Sichuan, China, to map topography; and using ALOS L band data in the San Francisco Bay region to map urban building and bridge. A new ionospheric correction method based on the tile method employing IGS TEC data, a split-spectrum and an ionospheric model via least squares are developed to correct ionospheric distortion to improve the accuracy of 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging. Meanwhile, a pixel by pixel orbit baseline estimation method is developed to address the research gaps of baseline estimation for 3D & 4D spaceborne SAR tomography imaging. Moreover, a SAR tomography imaging algorithm and a differential tomography four-dimensional SAR imaging algorithm based on compressive sensing, SAR interferometry phase (InSAR) calibration reference to DEM with DEM error correction, a new phase error calibration and compensation algorithm, based on PS, SVD, PGA, weighted least squares and minimum entropy, are developed to obtain accurate 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging results. The new baseline estimation method and consequent TomoSAR processing results showed that an accurate baseline estimation is essential to build up the TomoSAR model. After baseline estimation, phase calibration experiments (via FFT and Capon method) indicate that a phase calibration step is indispensable for TomoSAR imaging, which eventually influences the inversion results. A super-resolution reconstruction CS based study demonstrates X band data with the CS method does not fit for forest reconstruction but works for reconstruction of large civil engineering structures such as dams and urban buildings. Meanwhile, the L band data with FFT, Capon and the CS method are shown to work for the reconstruction of large manmade structures (such as bridges) and urban buildings

Integration of Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for monitoring mining induced surface deformations

Surface subsidence induced by mining is a source of risk to people, equipment and environment. It may also disrupt mining schedules and increase the cost of mine safety. To provide accurate assessment of the surface subsidence and its level of impact on mine production and environment, it is necessary to develop and introduce comprehensive subsidence monitoring systems. Current techniques for monitoring of surface deformation are usually based on classical survey principles. In general these techniques have disadvantages that limit their applicability: they follow point-by-point data collection techniques, they are relatively time-consuming and costly, they usually cover only a small area, they are not applicable for the monitoring of inaccessible areas and they are not able to collect data continuously.As a complementary or alternative technique, the thesis discusses the applicability of SAR interferometry for monitoring mining induced deformations. InSAR is a remote sensing technique that makes use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) observations to acquire change in terrain topography. In spite of the widespread application of the technique for monitoring large-scale deformations of the Earth crust, specific modifications are necessary for utilising the technology within a mining context. Limitations, such as difficulty to resolve deformation for a high gradient slope, difficulty to retrieve subsidence for localised highly dynamic ground movements and the unavailability of SAR images with the desired specifications restrict the potential to monitor high rate, localised mine subsidence on day-to-day basis.The secondary aim of the thesis is to present integration of InSAR and GIS in order to propose an optimum methodology for processing of InSAR data to determine mine subsidence. The presented research also involves detailed analysis of InSAR limitations. This in consequence has led to suggestions on how to improve current InSAR capability with respect to the mining needs.The thesis introduces a set of new GIS-based tools and methodologies that are integrated into a conventional InSAR processing technique, to further improve and facilitate application of InSAR in mining. The developed tools and techniques cover the three main stages of data processing (pre-processing, processing and postprocessing). The researcher tried to address InSAR.’s limitations associated with mining related applications and also to provide practical solutions to resolve these issues

Spaceborne InSAR for dam stability

PhD ThesisThis study evaluates the feasibility of the use of satellite radar for dam deformation monitoring. Spaceborne Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) has long been used to monitor geohazards, including earthquakes, landslides, and volcanos. However, few studies have recently investigated its feasibility for localised deformation monitoring such as of earth dams. Here two case studies are presented of the monitoring of dams in Iraq. Mosul dam is one of the most dangerous dams in the world. Previous studies have reported that over a million human lives would be potentially at risk should dam failure occur. Therefore, investigation of its health using precise and continuous observations is crucial. This was achieved with two independent geodetic datasets from levelling and InSAR, and the results show continuous vertical displacements on the dam crest due to the dissolution of foundations. Vertical displacement rate estimates from levelling and InSAR for the period 2003-2010 are in good agreement, with a correlation of 0.93 and an RMSE of ± 1.7 mm. For the period 2014- 2017, the correlation is 0.95 and the RMSE is ± 0.9 mm. The movement of the dam was evaluated using settlement index which is not referring to critical instability of the dam. However, the spatial and temporal displacement anomalies emphasize that a careful monitoring and remedial work should continue. The continuous displacement in the dam foundation could loosen the compaction of the embankment and result in internal erosion. In a separate study, Darbandikhan dam was monitored using a global positioning system (GPS), levelling, and Sentinel-1 data to evaluate its stability after the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake. The large gradient of the dam’s displacements on its crest hindered the estimation of co-seismic displacements using medium-resolution SAR data. However, Sentinel-1 images were sufficient to examine the dam’s stability before and after the earthquake. The results show that the dam was stable between October 2014 and November 2017, but after the earthquake continuous subsidence on the dam crest occurred between November 2017 and March 2018. For the first time the stability of the Mosul and Darbandikhan dams has been assessed using an integration of InSAR and in-situ observations. Different types of deformations were recognized, which helped in interpreting the dam’s deformation mechanismsMinistry of Higher Education (MOHE) and the State Commission of Surveys (SCOS) in Ira

Technology for large space systems: A bibliography with indexes (supplement 13)

This bibliography lists 399 reports, articles and other documents introduced into the NASA scientific and technical information system between January 1, 1985 and June 30, 1985. Its purpose is to provide helpful information to the researcher, manager, and designer in technology development and mission design according to system, interactive analysis and design, structural and thermal analysis and design, structural concepts and control systems, electronics, advanced materials, assembly concepts, propulsion, and solar power satellite systems

Dialectical GAN for SAR Image Translation: From Sentinel-1 to TerraSAR-X

Contrary to optical images, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are in different electromagnetic spectrum where the human visual system is not accustomed to. Thus, with more and more SAR applications, the demand for enhanced high-quality SAR images has increased considerably. However, high-quality SAR images entail high costs due to the limitations of current SAR devices and their image processing resources. To improve the quality of SAR images and to reduce the costs of their generation, we propose a Dialectical Generative Adversarial Network (Dialectical GAN) to generate high-quality SAR images. This method is based on the analysis of hierarchical SAR information and the "dialectical" structure of GAN frameworks. As a demonstration, a typical example will be shown where a low-resolution SAR image (e.g., a Sentinel-1 image) with large ground coverage is translated into a high-resolution SAR image (e.g., a TerraSAR-X image). Three traditional algorithms are compared, and a new algorithm is proposed based on a network framework by combining conditional WGAN-GP (Wasserstein Generative Adversarial Network - Gradient Penalty) loss functions and Spatial Gram matrices under the rule of dialectics. Experimental results show that the SAR image translation works very well when we compare the results of our proposed method with the selected traditional methods.Comment: 22 pages, 15 figure

Earth Resources: A continuing bibliography with indexes, issue 40

This bibliography lists 423 reports, articles, and other documents introduced into the NASA scientific and technical information system between October 1 and December 31, 1983. Emphasis is placed on the use of remote sensing and geophysical instrumentation in spacecraft and aircraft to survey and inventory natural resources and urban areas. Subject matter is grouped according to agriculture and forestry, environmental changes and cultural resources, geodesy and cartography, geology and mineral resources, hydrology and water management, data processing and distribution systems, instrumentation and sensors, and economical analysis