Muscle activation patterns are more constrained and regular in treadmill than in overground human locomotion

The use of motorized treadmills as convenient tools for the study of locomotion has been in vogue for many decades. However, despite the widespread presence of these devices in many scientific and clinical environments, a full consensus on their validity to faithfully substitute free overground locomotion is still missing. Specifically, little information is available on whether and how the neural control of movement is affected when humans walk and run on a treadmill as compared to overground. Here, we made use of linear and non-linear analysis tools to extract information from electromyographic recordings during walking and running overground, and on an instrumented treadmill. We extracted synergistic activation patterns from the muscles of the lower limb via non-negative matrix factorization. We then investigated how the motor modules (or time-invariant muscle weightings) were used in the two locomotion environments. Subsequently, we examined the timing of motor primitives (or time-dependent coefficients of muscle synergies) by calculating their duration, the time of main activation, and their Hurst exponent, a non-linear metric derived from fractal analysis. We found that motor modules were not influenced by the locomotion environment, while motor primitives were overall more regular in treadmill than in overground locomotion, with the main activity of the primitive for propulsion shifted earlier in time. Our results suggest that the spatial and sensory constraints imposed by the treadmill environment might have forced the central nervous system to adopt a different neural control strategy than that used for free overground locomotion, a data-driven indication that treadmills could induce perturbations to the neural control of locomotion

Effects of overground walking with a robotic exoskeleton on lower limb muscle synergies

Les exosquelettes robotisés de marche (ERM) représentent une intervention prometteuse dans le domaine de la réadaptation locomotrice. Sur le plan clinique, les ERM facilitent la mise en application de principes de neuroplasticité. Jusqu'à présent, la majorité des études analysant les effets de l’ERM a été menée avec des ERM fournissant une assistance robotique complète le long d’une trajectoire de mouvements prédéfinie des membres inférieurs (MI) de façon à reproduire la marche de façon quasi parfaite à très basse vitesse. La nouvelle génération d’ERM, maintenant disponible sur le marché, propose de nouveaux modes de contrôles qui permettent, entre autres, une liberté de mouvement accrue aux MIs (c.-à-d. trajectoire non imposée) et une possibilité d’offrir une assistance ou résistance aux mouvements de différentes intensités surtout pendant la phase d’oscillation du cycle de marche. Cependant, les effets de ces modes de contrôles sur la coordination musculaire des MI pendant la marche au sol avec l’ERM, caractérisé via l’extraction de synergies musculaires (SM), restent méconnus. Cette thèse mesure et compare les caractéristiques des SM (c.-à-d. nombre, profils d’activation, composition musculaire et contribution relative des muscles) pendant la la marche au sol sans ou avec un ERM paramétré avec six différents modes de contrôle chez des individus en bonne santé (articles #1 et #2) et d’autres ayant une lésion médullaire incomplète (LMI) (article #3). Les signaux électromyographiques (EMG) des différents muscles clés des MI, enregistrés lors de la marche, ont été utilisés afin d’extraire les SM avec un algorithme de factorisation matricielle non négative. La similarité des cosinus et les coefficients de corrélation ont caractérisé les similitudes entre les caractéristiques des SM. Les résultats montrent que: 1) les profils d'activation temporelle et le nombre de SM sont modifiés en fonction de la vitesse de marche avec, entre autres une augmentation de la vitesse de marche entrainant une fusion de SM, chez les individus en bonne santé marchant sans ERM ; 2) lorsque ces derniers marchent avec un ERM, les différents modes de contrôle testés ne dupliquent pas adéquatement les SM retrouvées lors de la marche sans ERM. En fait, uniquement le mode de contrôle libérant la contrainte de trajectoire de mouvements des MIs dans le plan sagittal lors de la phase d’oscillation reproduit les principales caractéristiques des SM retrouvées pendant la marche sans ERM ; 3) le nombre et la composition musculaire des SM sont modifiés pendant la marche sans ERM chez les personnes ayant une LMI. Cependant, parmi tous les modes de contrôle étudiés, seul le mode de contrôle libérant le contrôle de la trajectoire de mouvements des MI et assistant l’oscillation du MIs (c.-à-d. HASSIST) permets l’extraction de SM similaire à celles observées chez des individus en santé lors d'une marche sans ERM. Dans l’ensemble, cette thèse a mis en évidence le fait que différentes demandes biomécaniques liées à la marche (c.-à-d. vitesse de marche, modes de contrôle de l’ERM) modifient le nombre et les caractéristiques de SM chez les personnes en santé. Cette thèse a également confirmé que la coordination musculaire, mise en évidence via l’analyse de SM, est altérée chez les personnes ayant une LMI et a tendance à se normaliser lors de la marche avec l’ERM paramétré dans le mode de HASSIST. Les nouvelles preuves appuieront les professionnels de la réadaptation dans le processus de prise de décision concernant la sélection du mode de contrôle des MIs lors de l’entrainement locomoteur utilisant avec un ERM.Wearable robotic exoskeletons (WRE) represent a promising rehabilitation intervention for locomotor rehabilitation training that aligns with activity-based neuroplasticity principles in terms of optimal sensory input, massed repetition, and proper kinematics. Thus far, most studies that investigated the effects of WRE have used WRE that provide full robotic assistance and fixed trajectory guidance to the lower extremity (L/E) to generate close-to-normal walking kinematics, usually at very slow speeds. Based on clinicians’ feedback, current commercially-available WRE have additional control options to be able to integrate these devices into the recovery process of individuals who have maintained some ability to walk after an injury to the central nervous system. In this context, WRE now offer additional degrees of movements for the L/E to move freely and different strategies to assist or resist movement, particularly during the gait cycle’s swing phase. However, the extent that these additional WRE control options affect L/E neuromuscular control during walking, typically characterized using muscle synergies (MSs), remains unknown. This thesis measures and compares MSs characteristics (i.e., number, temporal activation profile, and muscles contributing to a specific synergy [weightings]) during typical overground walking, with and without a WRE, in six different control modes, in abled-bodied individuals (Articles #1 and #2) and individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI; Article #3). Surface EMG of key L/E muscles were recorded while walking and used to extract MSs using a non-negative matrix factorization algorithm. Cosine similarity and correlation coefficients characterized, grouped, and indicated similarities between MS characteristics. Results demonstrated that: 1) the number of MSs and MS temporal activation profiles in able-bodied individuals walking without WRE are modified by walking speed and that, as speed increased, specific MSs were fused or merged compared to MSs at slow speeds; 2) In able-bodied individuals walking with WRE, few WRE control modes maintained the typical MSs characteristics that were found during overground walking without WRE. Moreover, freeing the L/E swing trajectory imposed by the WRE best reproduced those MSs characteristics during overground walking without the WRE; and 3) After an iSCI, alterations to the number and the composition of MSs were observed during walking without WRE. However, of all WRE control modes that were investigated, only HASSIST (i.e., freeing WRE control over L/E swing trajectory while assisting the user’s self-selected trajectory) reproduced the number and composition of MSs found in abled-bodied individuals during overground walking without WRE. Altogether, the results of this thesis demonstrated that different walking-related biomechanical demands (i.e., walking speed) and most of the WRE control modes can alter some MSs, and their characteristics, in able-bodied individuals. This research also confirmed that impaired muscle coordination, assessed via MSs, can adapt when walking with a WRE set with specific control options (e.g., HASSIST). These MS adaptations mimicked typical MS characteristics extracted during overground walking. The evidence generated by this thesis will support the decision-making process when selecting specific L/E control options during WRE walking, allowing rehabilitation professionals to refine WRE locomotor training protocols

Feasibility of Muscle Synergy Outcomes in Clinics, Robotics, and Sports: A Systematic Review

In the last years, several studies have been focused on understanding how the central nervous system controls muscles to perform a specific motor task. Although it still remains an open question, muscle synergies have come to be an appealing theory to explain the modular organization of the central nervous system. Even though the neural encoding of muscle synergies remains controversial, a large number of papers demonstrated that muscle synergies are robust across different tested conditions, which are within a day, between days, within a single subject and between subjects that have similar demographic characteristics. Thus, muscle synergy theory has been largely used in several research fields, such as clinics, robotics and sports. The present systematical review aims at providing an overview on the applications of muscle synergy theory in clinics, robotics and sports; in particular, the review is focused on the papers that provide tangible information for: (i) diagnosis or pathology assessment in clinics; (ii) robot-control design in robotics; and (iii) athletes’ performance assessment or training guidelines in sports

Robust muscle synergies for postural control

The musculoskeletal structure of the human and animal body provides multiple solutions for performing any single motor behavior. The long-term goal of the work presented here is to determine the neuromechanical strategies used by the nervous system to appropriately coordinate muscles in order to achieve the performance of daily motor tasks. The overall hypothesis is that the nervous system simplifies muscle coordination by the flexible activation of muscle synergies, defined as a group of muscles activated as a unit, that perform task-level biomechanical functions. To test this hypothesis we investigated whether muscle synergies can be robustly used as building blocks for constructing the spatiotemporal muscle coordination patterns in human and feline postural control under a variety of biomechanical contexts. We demonstrated the generality and robustness of muscle synergies as a simplification strategy for both human and animal postural control. A few robust muscle synergies were able to reproduce the spatial and temporal variability in human and cat postural responses, regardless of stance configuration and perturbation type. In addition inter-trial variability in human postural responses was also accounted for by these muscle synergies. Finally, the activation of each muscle synergy in cat produced a specific stabilizing force vector, suggesting that muscle synergies control task-level variables. The identified muscle synergies may represent general modules of motor output underlying muscle coordination in posture that can be activated in different sensory contexts to achieve different postural goals. Therefore muscle synergies represents a simplifying mechanism for muscle coordination in natural behaviors not only because it is a strategy for reducing the number of variables to be controlled, but because it represents a mechanism for simply controlling multi-segmental task-level variables.Ph.D.Committee Chair: Ting, Lena H.; Committee Member: Chang, Young-Hui; Committee Member: Lee, Robert H.; Committee Member: Nichols, T. Richard; Committee Member: Wolf, Steve L

Respiratory, postural and spatio-kinetic motor stabilization, internal models, top-down timed motor coordination and expanded cerebello-cerebral circuitry: a review

Human dexterity, bipedality, and song/speech vocalization in Homo are reviewed within a motor evolution perspective in regard to 

(i) brain expansion in cerebello-cerebral circuitry, 
(ii) enhanced predictive internal modeling of body kinematics, body kinetics and action organization, 
(iii) motor mastery due to prolonged practice, 
(iv) task-determined top-down, and accurately timed feedforward motor adjustment of multiple-body/artifact elements, and 
(v) reduction in automatic preflex/spinal reflex mechanisms that would otherwise restrict such top-down processes. 

Dual-task interference and developmental neuroimaging research argues that such internal modeling based motor capabilities are concomitant with the evolution of 
(vi) enhanced attentional, executive function and other high-level cognitive processes, and that 
(vii) these provide dexterity, bipedality and vocalization with effector nonspecific neural resources. 

The possibility is also raised that such neural resources could 
(viii) underlie human internal model based nonmotor cognitions. 
&#xa