Effect of Reverse Bias Stress on Leakage Currents and Breakdown Voltages of Solid Tantalum Capacitors

The majority of solid tantalum capacitors are produced by high-temperature sintering of a fine tantalum powder around a tantalum wire followed by electrolytic anodization that forms a thin amorphous Ta2O5 dielectric layer and pyrolysis of manganese nitrite on the oxide to create a conductive manganese dioxide electrode. A contact to tantalum wire is used as anode terminal and to the manganese layer as a cathode terminal of the device. This process results in formation of an asymmetric Ta -- Ta2O5 -- MnO2 capacitor that has different characteristics at forward (positive bias applied to tantalum) and reverse (positive bias applied to manganese cathode) voltages. Reverse bias currents might be several orders of magnitude larger than forward leakage currents so I-V characteristics of tantalum capacitors resemble characteristics of semiconductor rectifiers. Asymmetric I-V characteristics of Ta -- anodic Ta2O5 systems have been observed at different top electrode materials including metals, electrolytes, conductive polymers, and manganese oxide thus indicating that this phenomenon is likely related to the specifics of the Ta -- Ta2O5 interface. There have been multiple attempts to explain rectifying characteristics of capacitors employing anodic tantalum pentoxide dielectrics. A brief review of works related to reverse bias (RB) behavior of tantalum capacitors shows that the mechanism of conduction in Ta -- Ta2O5 systems is still not clear and more testing and analysis is necessary to understand the processes involved. If tantalum capacitors behave just as rectifiers, then the assessment of the safe reverse bias operating conditions would be a relatively simple task. Unfortunately, these parts can degrade with time under reverse bias significantly, and this further complicates analysis of the I-V characteristics and establishing safe operating areas of the parts. On other hand, time dependence of reverse currents might provide additional information for investigation of the processes under reverse bias conditions. In practice, there were instances when, due to unforeseen events, the system operated at conditions when capacitors experience periodically a relatively small reverse bias for some time followed by normal, forward bias conditions. In such a case an assessment should be made on the degree to which these capacitors are degraded by application of low-voltage reverse bias, and whether this degradation can be reversed by normal operating conditions. In this study, reverse currents in different types of tantalum capacitors were monitored at different reverse voltages below 15%VR and temperatures in the range from room to 145 C for up to 150 hours to get better understanding of the degradation process and determine conditions favorable to the unstable mode of operation. The reversibility of RB degradation has been evaluated after operation of the capacitors at forward bias conditions. The effect of reverse bias stress (RBS) on reliability at normal operating conditions was evaluated using highly accelerated life testing at voltages of 1.5VR and 2 VR and by analysis of changes in distributions of breakdown voltages. Possible mechanisms of RB degradation are discussed

The development of magnetic tunnel junction fabrication techniques

The discovery of large, room temperature magnetoresistance (MR) in magnetic tunnel junctions in 1995 sparked great interest in these devices. Their potential applications include hard disk read head sensors and magnetic random access memory (MRAM). However, the fabrication of repeatable, high quality magnetic tunnel junctions is still problematic. This thesis investigates methods to improve and quantify the quality of tunnel junction fabrication. Superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) and superconductor-insulatorferromagnet (SIF) tunnel junctions were used to develop the fabrication route, due to the ease of identifying their faults. The effect on SIF device quality of interchanging the top and bottom electrodes was monitored. The relationship between the superconducting and normal state characteristics of SIS junctions was investigated. Criteria were formulated to identify devices in which tunneling is not the principal conduction mechanism in normal metal-insulator-normal metal junctions. Magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) were produced on the basis of the fabrication route developed with SIS and SIF devices. MTJs in which tunneling is the principal conduction mechanism do not necessarily demonstrate high MR, due to effects such as magnetic coupling between the electrodes and spin scattering. Transmission electron microscope images were used to study magnetic tunnel junction structure, revealing an amorphous barrier and crystalline electrodes. The decoration of pinholes and weak-links by copper electrodeposition was investigated. A new technique is presented to identify the number of copper deposits present in a thin insulating film. The effect of roughness, aluminium thickness and voltage on the number of pinholes and weak-links per unit area was studied. High frequency testing of read heads at wafer level was performed with a network analyser. Design implications for read head geometry were investigated, independent of magnetic performance. This technique has great potential to aid the rapid development of read and write heads whilst improving understanding of the system.EPSRC Seagate Technolog

Study of the Ta2O5 insulating layer degradation

Ve své práci se zaměřuji na studium izolační vrstvy Ta2O5 požité jako dielektrikum v tantalových kondenzátorech. Kondenzátor zapojený v normálním módu představuje strukturu typu MIS zapojenou v závěrném směru. Zbytkový proud součástkou lze podle mechanismu přenosu náboje rozdělit na několik složek: ohmickou, Poole-Frenkelovu, tunelovou a Schottkyho. Sestavil jsem aparaturu pro měření časových závislostí zbytkového proudu za zvýšené teploty, na které jsem prováděl žíhání tří sérií tantalových kondenzátorů od různých výrobců při teplotě 400 K a jmenovitém napětí 35 V po dobu více než 20-ti dnů. Z vyhodnocení časových závislostí plyne, že zbytkový proud se za zvýšené teploty v elektrickém poli s časem mění v důsledku pohybu iontů, přičemž dochází k ovlivnění jednotlivých složek zbytkového proudu. Pohybem iontů se myslí jejich drift vlivem přiloženého elektrického pole a difuze v důsledku gradientu koncentrace. Po žíhání vzorků po dobu cca 2 x 106 s jsem prováděl regeneraci zbytkového proudu při napětí 5 V po dobu 106 s. Hodnoty zbytkových proudů po žíhání výrazně narostly a po regeneraci opět klesly téměř na výchozí úroveň, u některých vzorků dokonce na úroveň nižší než výchozí. Z VA charakteristik před i po stárnutí a po procesu „regenerace“ plyne, že dojde nejen ke změně parametrů jednotlivých složek proudu, ale i ke změně mechanismu vedení proudu.The aim of the thesis is to examine the dielectric function Ta2O5 insulating layers in tantalum capacitors. The capacitor plugged in the regular mode represents a MIS structure of reverse direction. Three different factors can be determined for the residual current of the component according to its charge transmission mode: the ohmic, Pool–Frenkel, tunnel and Schottky. An apparatus was constructed by the author of the thesis to measure the temporary connection between residual current and rise of temperature of the tantalum capacitors. Annealing of three different sets of tantalum capacitors made by different producers was performed at the temperature of 400 K and nominal voltage of 35 V during the period of 20 days.The experiment has proved the residual current in the electric field changes with rising temperature in time as a result of the ion movement. The singular factors of the residual current are influenced during the process. By the “ion movement” is meant the ion drift influenced by the attached electric field and diffusion caused by the concentration gradient. First, the samples were being annealed for c. 2 x 106 s, and then the residual current was being regenerated under the voltage of 5 V for 106 s. The residual current values increased considerably after annealing, and decreased again to more or less the original level after the regeneration, some of the samples reaching even values bellow the original level. The VA characteristics of the samples measured before and after the process of controlled obsolescence, and after the regeneration prove not only a change in parameters of the different current factors, but also a change of the current transmission mechanism employed in the process.

Transport of Electric Charge in Tantalum Capacitor

Cílem této práce bylo studium vlastností tantalových kondenzátorů s pevným elektrolytem. Kondenzátor typu Ta – Ta2O5 – MnO2 svým složením představuje MIS strukturu, kde tantalová anoda má kovovou vodivost a burel – MnO2 je polovodič. Izolační vrstva je tvořena pentoxidem tantalu Ta2O5 s relativní permitivitou r = 27. Tloušťka izolační vrstvy je v rozmezí 30 až 150nm. Náboj kondenzátoru není akumulován jen na elektrodách, ale také na lokalizovaných stavech (kyslíkových vakancích) v izolační vrstvě. Kondenzátor zapojený v normálním režimu představuje strukturu typu MIS zapojenou v závěrném směru, kdy přiložené napětí zvyšuje potenciálovou bariéru mezi polovodičem – burelem a izolantem – Ta2O5. V normálním modu – při přiložení kladného napětí na Ta, je transport nosičů náboje izolační vrstvou určený Poole-Frenkelovým mechanismem a tunelováním. Při nízké intenzitě elektrického pole je dominantní Poole-Frenkelův mechanismus transportu náboje, při vyšší intenzitě elektrického pole je proud určen tunelováním. Při nízké intenzitě elektrického pole se projeví i ohmická složka proudu určená odporem příměsového pásu vytvořeného v izolantu donorovými stavy kyslíkových vakancí. Na základě modelování naměřených VA charakteristik lze odhadnout efektivní tloušťku dielektrika Ta2O5 a určit podíl Poole-Frenkelova a tunelového proudu na transportu náboje. V mé práci je popsáno rozložení náboje na tantalovém kondenzátoru v oblasti nízkých frekvencí a provedena analýza charakteristik kondenzátoru ve frekvenční oblasti. Prvotním podmětem pro tuto práci je snaha vytvoření náhradního modelu tantalového kondenzátoru z hlediska jeho fyzikálního a elektrického chování. Na základě náhradního elektrického modelu lze pak dále zkoumat a stanovit rozložení a transport elektrického náboje v kondenzátoru. Změřením elektrických parametrů lze taktéž dospět k určení potenciálových bariér a rozložení potenciálu ve struktuře kondenzátoru. Tato metodika spočívá v analýze elektrických charakteristik kondenzátoru, pomocí nichž se vytvoří fyzikální model kondenzátoru popisující jeho funkci, vlastnosti a chování.The task of the thesis was studding of tantalum capacitors with solid electrolytes properties. Ta – Ta2O5 – MnO2 capacitor by its construction represents MIS structure, where tantalum anode has metal conductivity and MnO2 cathode is semiconductor. Isolation layer consists of tantalum pentoxide Ta2O5 with relative permitivity r = 27. Dielectric thickness is typically in range from 30 to 150nm. The capacitor charge is not only stored and accumulated on electrodes but also in localised states (oxide vacancies) in isolation layer. The capacitor connected in normal mode represents MIS structure polarized in reveres direction when the applied voltage higher potential barrier between semiconductor - MnO2 cathode and isolation of Ta2O5. The transport of charge carriers via isolation layer is determined by Poole-Frenkel mechanisms and tunnelling. Poole-Frenkel mechanism of charge transport is dominant in low intensity of electric field. Tunnelling determines current at higher electric field intensity. During low intensity of electric field ohmic component is also presented which is determined by volume of resistance of impurities in isolation layer due to donor states of oxygen vacancies. Based on the modelling of measured VA characteristics is possible to estimate determine dielectric thickness of Ta2O5 and determine share of Poole-Frenkelov and tunnel current and charge transportation. The thesis is described charge transport and charge concentration on tantalum capacitor in low frequency area and analysis of capacitor behaviour at frequency band. The first impulse for the thesis was an effort to create equivalent circuit diagram of tantalum capacitor in respect of its physical and electrical behaviour. There is an opportunity to study and determine electric charge transport and its accumulation based on the equivalent circuit diagram structure. There is also a chance to define and trace potential barriers and charge distribution in the capacitor structure based on an measurement and carried out experiments. This methodology and analysis consists of electrical characteristic determination to create physical model of the capacitor describing it function, properties and behaviour.

Technology advancement of the CCD201-20 EMCCD for the WFIRST coronagraph instrument: sensor characterization and radiation damage

The Wide Field InfraRed Survey Telescope-Astrophysics Focused Telescope Asset (WFIRST-AFTA) mission is a 2.4-m class space telescope that will be used across a swath of astrophysical research domains. JPL will provide a high-contrast imaging coronagraph instrument—one of two major astronomical instruments. In order to achieve the low noise performance required to detect planets under extremely low flux conditions, the electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) has been baselined for both of the coronagraph’s sensors—the imaging camera and integral field spectrograph. JPL has established an EMCCD test laboratory in order to advance EMCCD maturity to technology readiness level-6. This plan incorporates full sensor characterization, including read noise, dark current, and clock-induced charge. In addition, by considering the unique challenges of the WFIRST space environment, degradation to the sensor’s charge transfer efficiency will be assessed, as a result of damage from high-energy particles such as protons, electrons, and cosmic rays. Science-grade CCD201-20 EMCCDs have been irradiated to a proton fluence that reflects the projected WFIRST orbit. Performance degradation due to radiation displacement damage is reported, which is the first such study for a CCD201-20 that replicates the WFIRST conditions. In addition, techniques intended to identify and mitigate radiation-induced electron trapping, such as trap pumping, custom clocking, and thermal cycling, are discussed

Production and optimisation of molten salt compatible micro- and nanoelectrodes for enhanced electroanalysis in LiCl-KCl Eutectic

The unique properties of molten salts have made their utilisation in a variety of industrial processes indispensable. Many of these benefits make them an attractive option for the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. In the UK, electrochemical pyroprocessing is being developed using a molten salt of LiCl-KCl eutectic. Fully understanding the electrochemical processes which would occur and developing a robust sensing system for on-line monitoring is essential to advance understanding and maintain both control and safety over the process. Performing measurements within a molten salt is challenging due to the inherently high temperatures (usually around 450°C) and corrosive species that can be present in the molten salt. For the purpose of electrochemical sensing, microelectrodes and nanoelectrodes have been shown to have enhanced properties, including lower detection limits and insensitivity to convection, because of the increased efficiency of their mass transport and the more rapid establishment of their steadystate diffusion profile. These properties make them ideal for both studying the fundamental electrochemical processes and for on-line monitoring of a pyroprocessing system. Traditional methods of manufacture of these miniaturised devices do not allow precise control over size, which limits reproducibility and requires extensive calibration of the exact dimensions. Microfabrication enables reliable production of both single microelectrodes and microelectrode arrays of exact dimension and offers a route to nanoelectrodes for quantitation in aqueous systems. However, attempts to use such microelectrodes in molten salt have also been hampered by materials degradation particularly at the seals between different materials. Whilst the traditional methods often use materials that are not compatible with molten salts, microfabrication has another advantage of being able to choose certain materials and tune their properties. This work aimed to bring the greatly needed, enhanced sensing properties of micro and ring nanoelectrodes to the field of molten salts, and hence pyroprocessing, by leveraging the greater control over device manufacture offered by microfabrication techniques. It presents the systematic development, production, characterisation and iterative optimisation of the single micro- and nanoelectrode designs which can withstand the harsh environment of the molten salt. For nanoelectrodes there was evidence of contribution to the measured signal from the conductive adhesion layer. Eliminating this requirement of an adhesion layer enabled the fabrication of molten-salt-compatible nanoelectrodes for the first time. These optimised micro- and nanoelectrodes were then used to gain insight into charge transfer kinetics and mass transfer processes during molten salt electrochemistry. This work demonstrates the fundamentals of utilising a single nanoelectrode for measurement, avoiding the array overlap which can complicate the electroanalysis. Europium was studied within this work due to its nuclear relevance and soluble-soluble one electron transfer process. Quantitative analysis has enabled the relative contributions of mass transport, alongside charge transfer kinetics and thermodynamics, when using these micro- and nanoelectrode systems to be obtained, compared and contrasted. Together this demonstrates the potential for these electrodes to be utilised to study other nuclear relevant species and to perform on-line monitoring in molten salt systems

Cryogenic Control Beyond 100 Qubits

Quantum computation has been a major focus of research in the past two decades, with recent experiments demonstrating basic algorithms on small numbers of qubits. A large-scale universal quantum computer would have a profound impact on science and technology, providing a solution to several problems intractable for classical computers. To realise such a machine, today's small experiments must be scaled up, and a system must be built which provides control and measurement of many hundreds of qubits. A device of this scale is challenging: qubits are highly sensitive to their environment, and sophisticated isolation techniques are required to preserve the qubits' fragile states. Solid-state qubits require deep-cryogenic cooling to suppress thermal excitations. Yet current state-of-the-art experiments use room-temperature electronics which are electrically connected to the qubits. This thesis investigates various scalable technologies and techniques which can be used to control quantum systems. With the requirements for semiconductor spin-qubits in mind, several custom electronic systems, to provide quantum control from deep cryogenic temperatures, are designed and measured. A system architecture is proposed for quantum control, providing a scalable approach to executing quantum algorithms on a large number of qubits. Control of a gallium arsenide qubit is demonstrated using a cryogenically operated FPGA driving custom gallium arsenide switches. The cryogenic performance of a commercial FPGA is measured, as the main logic processor in a cryogenic quantum control system, and digital-to-analog converters are analysed during cryogenic operation. Recent work towards a 100-qubit cryogenic control system is shown, including the design of interconnect solutions and multiplexing circuitry. With qubit fidelity over the fault-tolerant threshold for certain error correcting codes, accompanying control platforms will play a key role in the development of a scalable quantum machine

Mining is bad for health: a voyage of discovery

This is the final version. Available from Springer via the DOI in this record.Mining continues to be a dangerous activity, whether large-scale industrial mining or small-scale artisanal mining. Not only are there accidents, but exposure to dust and toxins, along with stress from the working environment or managerial pressures, give rise to a range of diseases that affect miners. I look at mining and health from various personal perspectives: that of the ordinary man (much of life depends on mined elements in the house, car and phone); as a member of the Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health (environmental contamination and degradation leads to ill health in nearby communities); as a public health doctor (mining health is affected by many factors, usually acting in a mix, ranging from individual inheritance—genetic makeup, sex, age; personal choices—diet, lifestyle; living conditions—employment, war; social support—family, local community; environmental conditions—education, work; to national and international constraints—trade, economy, natural world); as a volunteer (mining health costs are not restricted to miners or industry but borne by everyone who partakes of mining benefits—all of us); and as a lay preacher (the current global economy concentrates on profit at the expense of the health of miners). Partnership working by academics with communities, government and industry should develop evidence-based solutions. Employment, health, economic stability and environmental protection need not be mutually exclusive. We all need to act

Charging effects in niobium nanostructures

Three types of metallic nanostructures comprising niobium were investigated experimentally; in all three types, electric transport at very low temperatures was governed by Coulomb blockade effects. 1. Thin film strips of niobium could be tuned into resistor strips by an electrochemical anodisation process, using microfabricated masks and in situ resistance monitoring. These resistors showed a transition from superconducting to insulating behaviour with increasing sheet resistance, occurring at a value approximately equal to the quantum resistance for Cooper pairs, h/(4e^2). 2. Combining the anodisation technique with lateral size minimisation by shadow evaporation, devices in a single electron transistor-like configuration with two weak links and a small island between these were made. Direct evidence for the Coulomb blockade in the anodisation thinned niobium films was found when the transport characteristics could be modulated periodically by sweeping the voltage applied to a gate electrode placed on top of the structure. 3. Conventional single electron transistors with Al base electrodes, AlO_x barriers formed in situ by oxidation, and Nb top electrodes were made by angular evaporation. The output current noise of such a transistor was measured as a function of bias voltage, gate voltage, and temperature. The low frequency noise was found to be dominated by charge input noise. The dependence of the noise on the bias voltage is consistent with self-heating of the transistor activating the noise sources.Comment: PhD thesis, 177 pages, 42 figures (images downsampled