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The Neurobiology of Decision-Making and Responsibility: Reconciling Mechanism and Mindedness
This essay reviews recent developments in neurobiology which are beginning to expose the mechanisms that underlie some elements of decision-making that bear on attributions of responsibility. These βelementsβ have been mainly studied in simple perceptual decision tasks, which are performed similarly by humans and non-human primates. Here we consider the role of neural noise, and suggest that thinking about the role of noise can shift the focus of discussions of randomness in decision-making away from its role in enabling alternate possibilities and toward a potential grounding role for responsibility
ΠΠ΅ΠΉΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠ°
Neuroeconomics, or neurobiology of decision-making is a new discipline, more precisely, a branch of neurobiology that attempts to understand the neurobiological basis of decision-making. It is an interdisciplinary scientific direction located at the intersection of psychology, neurobiology and economic theory. It is aimed at studying the decision-making process during the selection of alternatives, risk and reward distributions. This science uses economic models to study the brain and advances in neuroscience to create economic models. The article describes the basics of Neuroeconomics. Studies of decision-making mechanisms in different social contexts are presented. It shows the relationship between Neuroeconomics and neurobiology, mentions which areas of the brain are involved in decision-making, and what can lead to further study of Neuroeconomics.ΠΠ΅ΠΉΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠ°, ΠΈΠ»ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ, β ΡΡΠΎ Π½ΠΎΠ²Π°Ρ Π΄ΠΈΡΡΠΈΠΏΠ»ΠΈΠ½Π°, ΡΠΎΡΠ½Π΅Π΅, ΡΠ°Π·Π΄Π΅Π» Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΈ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠΉ ΠΏΡΡΠ°Π΅ΡΡΡ ΠΏΠΎΠ½ΡΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Ρ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ. ΠΠ½Π° ΡΠ²Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄ΠΈΡΡΠΈΠΏΠ»ΠΈΠ½Π°ΡΠ½ΡΠΌ Π½Π°ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΌ Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠ°Π²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ, Π½Π°Ρ
ΠΎΠ΄ΡΡΠΈΠΌΡΡ Π½Π° ΡΡΡΠΊΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΈΡ
ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΈ, Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΈ ΠΈ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ΅ΠΎΡΠΈΠΈ. ΠΠ»Ρ ΠΈΠ·ΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΌΠΎΠ·Π³Π° ΡΡΠ° Π½Π°ΡΠΊΠ° ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠ΅Ρ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»ΠΈ, Π° Π΄Π»Ρ ΡΠΎΠ·Π΄Π°Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ β Π΄ΠΎΡΡΠΈΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π² ΠΎΠ±Π»Π°ΡΡΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΈ. Π ΡΡΠ°ΡΡΠ΅ ΠΈΠ·Π»Π°Π³Π°Π΅ΡΡΡ ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Ρ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ. ΠΡΠΈΠ²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½Ρ ΠΈΡΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΌΠ΅Ρ
Π°Π½ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠΎΠ² ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ Π² ΡΠ°Π·Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ
ΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ΅ΠΊΡΡΠ°Ρ
. ΠΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·ΡΠ²Π°Π΅ΡΡΡ Π²Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΠΎΡΠ²ΡΠ·Ρ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΈ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΠ±ΠΈΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΈ. ΠΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΡΡΡ ΠΎ ΡΠΎΠΌ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΠ±Π»Π°ΡΡΠΈ Π³ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΌΠΎΠ·Π³Π° ΡΡΠ°ΡΡΠ²ΡΡΡ Π² ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΠΈΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ, ΠΈ ΠΎ ΡΠΎΠΌ, ΠΊ ΡΠ΅ΠΌΡ ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ΅Ρ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ²Π΅ΡΡΠΈ Π΄Π°Π»ΡΠ½Π΅ΠΉΡΠ΅Π΅ ΠΈΠ·ΡΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ½ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΊΠΈ
A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making
Neuroeconomics is the study of the neurobiological and computational basis of value-based decision making. Its goal is to provide a biologically based account of human behaviour that can be applied in both the natural and the social sciences. This Review proposes a framework to investigate different aspects of the neurobiology of decision making. The framework allows us to bring together recent findings in the field, highlight some of the most important outstanding problems, define a common lexicon that bridges the different disciplines that inform neuroeconomics, and point the way to future applications
The neurobiology of decision making under risk
Risk is a highly salient psychological decision variable, and sensitivity to risk is an evolutionarily
ancient attribute. In this thesis I address the neurobiological foundation of risk assessment, and
show that behaviour is driven by an underlying distributed neural representation of different
elements of risk in the brain. In particular, I show using fMRI (in Chapter 4) and MEG (in Chapter
8) that variance (dispersion) and skewness (asymmetry) of gambles evokes anatomically
separable neural responses in a parietal, prefrontal and insula cortical network. I discuss
possible theoretical neurobiological mechanisms by which preferences could be imbued to
choice, and show that subjective tastes for risk, in terms of behavioural sensitivity to each of
these risk dimensions, influences the encoding of risk and subsequent anticipatory responses.
In Chapter 5, I show that a representation of prospective outcomes several trials into the future
is supported by a dissociated encoding of the statistical information of future states in medial
prefrontal cortex; furthermore that this encoding is contingent upon overarching goals or
constraints.
In Chapter 6, I demonstrate that economic choice is highly susceptible to exogenous biological
influences, namely the effect of metabolic state, whilst in Chapter 7 I provide evidence that the
encoding of risk is not affected by dopaminergic disruption, suggesting that dopamine might
mediate effects on risk-taking via its role in reward feedback representation.
In summary, the studies in this thesis elaborate the neural mechanisms underlying how humans
make both single-shot and sequential decisions under risk, central elements in decision-making
scenarios ranging from foraging to financial investment. This demonstrates that phylogenetically
ancient circuitry subserving valuation and reward decompose choice into their salient statistical
features, enabling the sophisticated representation of the future and its alternatives
Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system
Every day, individuals make dozens of choices between an alternative with higher overall value and a more tempting but ultimately inferior option. Optimal decision-making requires self-control. We propose two hypotheses about the neurobiology of self-control: (i) Goal-directed decisions have their basis in a common value signal encoded in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and (ii) exercising self-control involves the modulation of this value signal by dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to monitor brain activity while dieters engaged in real decisions about food consumption. Activity in vmPFC was correlated with goal values regardless of the amount of self-control. It incorporated both taste and health in self-controllers but only taste in nonβself-controllers. Activity in DLPFC increased when subjects exercised self-control and correlated with activity in vmPFC
Ten Challenges for Decision Neuroscience
Decision neuroscience research, as currently practiced, employs the methods of neuroscience to investigate concepts drawn from the social sciences. A typical study selects one or more variables from psychological or economic models, manipulates or measures choices within a simplified choice task, and then identifies neural correlates. Using this βneuroeconomicβ approach, researchers have described brain systems whose functioning shapes key economic variables, most notably aspects of subjective value. Yet, the standard approach has fundamental limitations. Important aspects of the mechanisms of decision making β from the sources of variability in decision making to the very computations supported by decision-related regions β remain incompletely understood. Here, I outline 10 outstanding challenges for future research in decision neuroscience. While some will be readily addressed using current methods, others will require new conceptual frameworks. Accordingly, a new strain of decision neuroscience will marry methods from economics and cognitive science to concepts from neurobiology and cognitive neuroscience
Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning in Behavior and the Brain
Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Biology, NeuroscienceReinforcement learning (RL) has provided key insights to the neurobiology
of learning and decision making. The pivotal nding is that the
phasic activity of dopaminergic cells in the ventral tegmental area during
learning conforms to a reward prediction error (RPE), as speci ed in the
temporal-di erence learning algorithm (TD). This has provided insights to
conditioning, the distinction between habitual and goal-directed behavior,
working memory, cognitive control and error monitoring. It has also advanced
the understanding of cognitive de cits in Parkinson's disease, depression,
ADHD and of personality traits such as impulsivity.(...
The impact of narration, sentiment, and emotional modulation on economic of decision-making: a multidisciplinary study
The article delves into the interplay between narration, sentiment, and decision-making processes, particularly within the realm of economic choices. Emphasizing the pivotal role of message content, the authors present a hypothesis depicting the profound impact of narration, characters, and sentiment in the communication process. These components wield significant influence over the emotional facets of decision-making, influencing the process or prompting alterations to initial decisions. Critically challenging established economic paradigms, the article underscores the indispensable emotional dimension inherent in communication. Drawing upon the scholarly contributions of eminent figures like Robert J. Shiller, the authors synthesize insights from psychology and neurobiology, unraveling the manipulative essence inherent in narration. In the theoretical section, the article also references Uri Hasson\u27s theories and research on brain synchronization during the communication process. The practical segment of the article substantiates these claims through the presentation of findings from neuropsychological studies. The study confirms the hypothesis that narratives infused with high sentiment resulting from emotional interactions, following a cause-and-effect structure with a visible beginning, development, and end, lead to better synchronization and intensify neuronal responses. The structure, plot shaping, and sentiment in messages, influenced by word choice, shape narrative economy and impact cognitive costs in decision-making. The obtained results confirm that precisely tailored narration effectively reduces cognitive costs associated with the decision-making process. This validates the authors\u27 hypothesis, opening up space for research replication and falsification of the results obtained
Transient Inactivation of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex Affects Both Anxiety and Decision-Making in Male Wistar Rats
In both humans and rats high levels of anxiety impair decision-making in the Iowa gambling task (IGT) in male subjects. Expression of the immediate early gene c-fos as marker of neural activity in rat studies indicated a role of the medial prefrontal cortex (prelimbic and infralimbic region; mPFC) in mediating the relationship between anxiety and decision-making. To delineate this relationship further and assess the underlying neurobiology in more detail, we inactivated in the present study the mPFC in male rats using a mixture of the GABA-receptor agonists muscimol and baclofen. Rats were exposed to the elevated plus maze (EPM) to measure effects on anxiety and to the rodent version of the IGT (r-IGT). Inactivation led to increased levels of anxiety on the EPM, while not affecting general activity. The effect in the r-IGT (trials 61β120) was dependent on levels of performance prior to inactivation (trial 41β60): inactivation of the mPFC hampered task performance in rats, which already showed a preference for the advantageous option, but not in rats which were still choosing in a random manner. These data suggest that the mPFC becomes more strongly involved as rats have learned task-contingencies, i.e., choose for the best long-term option. Furthermore they suggest, along with the data of our earlier study, that both anxiety and decision-making in rats are mediated through a neural circuitry including at least the mPFC. The data are discussed in relation to recent data of rodent studies on the neural circuitry underlying decision-making
Economic decision-making in psychopathy: A comparison with ventromedial prefrontal lesion patients
Psychopathy, which is characterized by a constellation of antisocial behavioral traits, may be subdivided on the basis of etiology: βprimaryβ (low-anxious) psychopathy is viewed as a direct consequence of some core intrinsic deficit, whereas βsecondaryβ (high-anxious) psychopathy is viewed as an indirect consequence of environmental factors or other psychopathology. Theories on the neurobiology of psychopathy have targeted dysfunction within ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) as a putative mechanism, yet the relationship between vmPFC function and psychopathy subtype has not been fully explored. In this study, we administered two laboratory decision-making tasks (the Ultimatum Game and the Dictator Game) to a group of prisoners (n=47) to determine whether the different subtypes of psychopathy (primary vs. secondary) are associated with characteristic patterns of economic decision-making, and furthermore, whether either subtype exhibits similar performance to patients with vmPFC lesions. Comparing primary psychopaths (n=6) to secondary psychopaths (n=6) and non-psychopaths (n=22), we found that primary psychopathy was associated with significantly lower acceptance rates of unfair Ultimatum offers and lower offer amounts in the Dictator Game. Moreover, primary psychopaths were quantitatively similar to vmPFC lesion patients in their response patterns. These results support the purported connection between psychopathy and vmPFC dysfunction, bolster the distinction between primary and secondary psychopathy, and demonstrate the utility of laboratory economic decision-making tests in differentiating clinical subgroups
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