Computer assisted screening of digital mammogram images

The use of computer systems to assist clinicians in digital mammography image screening has advantages over traditional methods. Computer algorithms can enhance the appearance of the images and highlight suspicious areas. Screening provides a more thorough examination of the images. Any computer system that does screening of digital mammograms contains components to address multiple tasks such as: image segmentation, mass lesion detection and classification, and microcalcification detection and classification. This dissertation provides both effective and efficient improvements to existing algorithms, which segment mammogram images and locate mass lesions. In addition, we provide a new algorithm to evaluate and report the results for mass lesion detection. The algorithm presented for mammogram segmentation uses a histogram based operator to define the boundaries between the different components of a mammogram image. It employs a unique clustering algorithm to produce closed, labeled sets of pixels which represent the distinct image components. The mass location algorithm uses a variation of template matching to locate suspicious areas. An evaluation of potential templates and algorithms is included. The method for testing and recording the results of the mass location algorithm groups suspicious pixels into regions and then compares them to the pathology

Intelligent Breast Cancer Diagnosis with Heuristic-assisted Trans-Res-U-Net and Multiscale DenseNet using Mammogram Images

Breast cancer (BC) significantly contributes to cancer-related mortality in women, underscoring the criticality of early detection for optimal patient outcomes. A mammography is a key tool for identifying and diagnosing breast abnormalities; however, accurately distinguishing malignant mass lesions remains challenging. To address this issue, we propose a novel deep learning approach for BC screening utilizing mammography images. Our proposed model comprises three distinct stages: data collection from established benchmark sources, image segmentation employing an Atrous Convolution-based Attentive and Adaptive Trans-Res-UNet (ACA-ATRUNet) architecture, and BC identification via an Atrous Convolution-based Attentive and Adaptive Multi-scale DenseNet (ACA-AMDN) model. The hyperparameters within the ACA-ATRUNet and ACA-AMDN models are optimised using the Modified Mussel Length-based Eurasian Oystercatcher Optimization (MML-EOO) algorithm. Performance evaluation, leveraging multiple metrics, is conducted, and a comparative analysis against conventional methods is presented. Our experimental findings reveal that the proposed BC detection framework attains superior precision rates in early disease detection, demonstrating its potential to enhance mammography-based screening methodologies.Comment: 22 pages, 17 figures, 4 Tables and Appendix A: Supplementary Materia

Deep-Learning-Based Computer- Aided Systems for Breast Cancer Imaging: A Critical Review

[EN] This paper provides a critical review of the literature on deep learning applications in breast tumor diagnosis using ultrasound and mammography images. It also summarizes recent advances in computer-aided diagnosis/detection (CAD) systems, which make use of new deep learning methods to automatically recognize breast images and improve the accuracy of diagnoses made by radiologists. This review is based upon published literature in the past decade (January 2010-January 2020), where we obtained around 250 research articles, and after an eligibility process, 59 articles were presented in more detail. The main findings in the classification process revealed that new DL-CAD methods are useful and effective screening tools for breast cancer, thus reducing the need for manual feature extraction. The breast tumor research community can utilize this survey as a basis for their current and future studies.This project has been co-financed by the Spanish Government Grant PID2019-107790RB-C22, "Software development for a continuous PET crystal systems applied to breast cancer".Jiménez-Gaona, Y.; Rodríguez Álvarez, MJ.; Lakshminarayanan, V. (2020). Deep-Learning-Based Computer- Aided Systems for Breast Cancer Imaging: A Critical Review. Applied Sciences. 10(22):1-29. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228298S1291022Jemal, A., Bray, F., Center, M. M., Ferlay, J., Ward, E., & Forman, D. (2011). Global cancer statistics. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 61(2), 69-90. doi:10.3322/caac.20107Gao, F., Chia, K.-S., Ng, F.-C., Ng, E.-H., & Machin, D. (2002). Interval cancers following breast cancer screening in Singaporean women. International Journal of Cancer, 101(5), 475-479. doi:10.1002/ijc.10636Munir, K., Elahi, H., Ayub, A., Frezza, F., & Rizzi, A. (2019). Cancer Diagnosis Using Deep Learning: A Bibliographic Review. Cancers, 11(9), 1235. doi:10.3390/cancers11091235Nahid, A.-A., & Kong, Y. (2017). Involvement of Machine Learning for Breast Cancer Image Classification: A Survey. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine, 2017, 1-29. doi:10.1155/2017/3781951Ramadan, S. Z. (2020). Methods Used in Computer-Aided Diagnosis for Breast Cancer Detection Using Mammograms: A Review. Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2020, 1-21. doi:10.1155/2020/9162464CHAN, H.-P., DOI, K., VYBRONY, C. J., SCHMIDT, R. A., METZ, C. E., LAM, K. L., … MACMAHON, H. (1990). Improvement in Radiologists?? Detection of Clustered Microcalcifications on Mammograms. Investigative Radiology, 25(10), 1102-1110. doi:10.1097/00004424-199010000-00006Olsen, O., & Gøtzsche, P. C. (2001). Cochrane review on screening for breast cancer with mammography. The Lancet, 358(9290), 1340-1342. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)06449-2Mann, R. M., Kuhl, C. K., Kinkel, K., & Boetes, C. (2008). Breast MRI: guidelines from the European Society of Breast Imaging. European Radiology, 18(7), 1307-1318. doi:10.1007/s00330-008-0863-7Jalalian, A., Mashohor, S. B. T., Mahmud, H. R., Saripan, M. I. B., Ramli, A. R. B., & Karasfi, B. (2013). Computer-aided detection/diagnosis of breast cancer in mammography and ultrasound: a review. Clinical Imaging, 37(3), 420-426. doi:10.1016/j.clinimag.2012.09.024Sarno, A., Mettivier, G., & Russo, P. (2015). Dedicated breast computed tomography: Basic aspects. Medical Physics, 42(6Part1), 2786-2804. doi:10.1118/1.4919441Njor, S., Nyström, L., Moss, S., Paci, E., Broeders, M., Segnan, N., & Lynge, E. (2012). Breast Cancer Mortality in Mammographic Screening in Europe: A Review of Incidence-Based Mortality Studies. Journal of Medical Screening, 19(1_suppl), 33-41. doi:10.1258/jms.2012.012080Morrell, S., Taylor, R., Roder, D., & Dobson, A. (2012). Mammography screening and breast cancer mortality in Australia: an aggregate cohort study. Journal of Medical Screening, 19(1), 26-34. doi:10.1258/jms.2012.011127Marmot, M. G., Altman, D. G., Cameron, D. A., Dewar, J. A., Thompson, S. G., & Wilcox, M. (2013). The benefits and harms of breast cancer screening: an independent review. British Journal of Cancer, 108(11), 2205-2240. doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.177Pisano, E. D., Gatsonis, C., Hendrick, E., Yaffe, M., Baum, J. K., Acharyya, S., … Rebner, M. (2005). Diagnostic Performance of Digital versus Film Mammography for Breast-Cancer Screening. New England Journal of Medicine, 353(17), 1773-1783. doi:10.1056/nejmoa052911Carney, P. A., Miglioretti, D. L., Yankaskas, B. C., Kerlikowske, K., Rosenberg, R., Rutter, C. M., … Ballard-Barbash, R. (2003). Individual and Combined Effects of Age, Breast Density, and Hormone Replacement Therapy Use on the Accuracy of Screening Mammography. Annals of Internal Medicine, 138(3), 168. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-138-3-200302040-00008Woodard, D. B., Gelfand, A. E., Barlow, W. E., & Elmore, J. G. (2007). Performance assessment for radiologists interpreting screening mammography. Statistics in Medicine, 26(7), 1532-1551. doi:10.1002/sim.2633Cole, E. B., Pisano, E. D., Kistner, E. O., Muller, K. E., Brown, M. E., Feig, S. A., … Braeuning, M. P. (2003). Diagnostic Accuracy of Digital Mammography in Patients with Dense Breasts Who Underwent Problem-solving Mammography: Effects of Image Processing and Lesion Type. Radiology, 226(1), 153-160. doi:10.1148/radiol.2261012024Boyd, N. F., Guo, H., Martin, L. J., Sun, L., Stone, J., Fishell, E., … Yaffe, M. J. (2007). Mammographic Density and the Risk and Detection of Breast Cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 356(3), 227-236. doi:10.1056/nejmoa062790Bird, R. E., Wallace, T. W., & Yankaskas, B. C. (1992). Analysis of cancers missed at screening mammography. Radiology, 184(3), 613-617. doi:10.1148/radiology.184.3.1509041Kerlikowske, K. (2000). Performance of Screening Mammography among Women with and without a First-Degree Relative with Breast Cancer. Annals of Internal Medicine, 133(11), 855. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-133-11-200012050-00009Nunes, F. L. S., Schiabel, H., & Goes, C. E. (2006). Contrast Enhancement in Dense Breast Images to Aid Clustered Microcalcifications Detection. Journal of Digital Imaging, 20(1), 53-66. doi:10.1007/s10278-005-6976-5Dinnes, J., Moss, S., Melia, J., Blanks, R., Song, F., & Kleijnen, J. (2001). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of double reading of mammograms in breast cancer screening: findings of a systematic review. The Breast, 10(6), 455-463. doi:10.1054/brst.2001.0350Robinson, P. J. (1997). Radiology’s Achilles’ heel: error and variation in the interpretation of the Röntgen image. The British Journal of Radiology, 70(839), 1085-1098. doi:10.1259/bjr.70.839.9536897Rangayyan, R. M., Ayres, F. J., & Leo Desautels, J. E. (2007). A review of computer-aided diagnosis of breast cancer: Toward the detection of subtle signs. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 344(3-4), 312-348. doi:10.1016/j.jfranklin.2006.09.003Vyborny, C. J., Giger, M. L., & Nishikawa, R. M. (2000). COMPUTER-AIDED DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF BREAST CANCER. Radiologic Clinics of North America, 38(4), 725-740. doi:10.1016/s0033-8389(05)70197-4Giger, M. L. (2018). Machine Learning in Medical Imaging. Journal of the American College of Radiology, 15(3), 512-520. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2017.12.028Xu, Y., Wang, Y., Yuan, J., Cheng, Q., Wang, X., & Carson, P. L. (2019). Medical breast ultrasound image segmentation by machine learning. Ultrasonics, 91, 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2018.07.006Shan, J., Alam, S. K., Garra, B., Zhang, Y., & Ahmed, T. (2016). Computer-Aided Diagnosis for Breast Ultrasound Using Computerized BI-RADS Features and Machine Learning Methods. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology, 42(4), 980-988. doi:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2015.11.016Zhang, Q., Xiao, Y., Dai, W., Suo, J., Wang, C., Shi, J., & Zheng, H. (2016). Deep learning based classification of breast tumors with shear-wave elastography. Ultrasonics, 72, 150-157. doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2016.08.004Cheng, J.-Z., Ni, D., Chou, Y.-H., Qin, J., Tiu, C.-M., Chang, Y.-C., … Chen, C.-M. (2016). Computer-Aided Diagnosis with Deep Learning Architecture: Applications to Breast Lesions in US Images and Pulmonary Nodules in CT Scans. Scientific Reports, 6(1). doi:10.1038/srep24454Shin, S. Y., Lee, S., Yun, I. D., Kim, S. M., & Lee, K. M. (2019). Joint Weakly and Semi-Supervised Deep Learning for Localization and Classification of Masses in Breast Ultrasound Images. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 38(3), 762-774. doi:10.1109/tmi.2018.2872031Wang, J., Ding, H., Bidgoli, F. A., Zhou, B., Iribarren, C., Molloi, S., & Baldi, P. (2017). Detecting Cardiovascular Disease from Mammograms With Deep Learning. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 36(5), 1172-1181. doi:10.1109/tmi.2017.2655486Kooi, T., Litjens, G., van Ginneken, B., Gubern-Mérida, A., Sánchez, C. I., Mann, R., … Karssemeijer, N. (2017). Large scale deep learning for computer aided detection of mammographic lesions. Medical Image Analysis, 35, 303-312. doi:10.1016/j.media.2016.07.007Debelee, T. G., Schwenker, F., Ibenthal, A., & Yohannes, D. (2019). Survey of deep learning in breast cancer image analysis. Evolving Systems, 11(1), 143-163. doi:10.1007/s12530-019-09297-2Keen, J. D., Keen, J. M., & Keen, J. E. (2018). Utilization of Computer-Aided Detection for Digital Screening Mammography in the United States, 2008 to 2016. Journal of the American College of Radiology, 15(1), 44-48. doi:10.1016/j.jacr.2017.08.033Henriksen, E. L., Carlsen, J. F., Vejborg, I. M., Nielsen, M. B., & Lauridsen, C. A. (2018). The efficacy of using computer-aided detection (CAD) for detection of breast cancer in mammography screening: a systematic review. Acta Radiologica, 60(1), 13-18. doi:10.1177/0284185118770917Gao, Y., Geras, K. J., Lewin, A. A., & Moy, L. (2019). New Frontiers: An Update on Computer-Aided Diagnosis for Breast Imaging in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. American Journal of Roentgenology, 212(2), 300-307. doi:10.2214/ajr.18.20392Pacilè, S., Lopez, J., Chone, P., Bertinotti, T., Grouin, J. M., & Fillard, P. (2020). Improving Breast Cancer Detection Accuracy of Mammography with the Concurrent Use of an Artificial Intelligence Tool. Radiology: Artificial Intelligence, 2(6), e190208. doi:10.1148/ryai.2020190208Huynh, B. Q., Li, H., & Giger, M. L. (2016). Digital mammographic tumor classification using transfer learning from deep convolutional neural networks. Journal of Medical Imaging, 3(3), 034501. doi:10.1117/1.jmi.3.3.034501Yap, M. H., Pons, G., Marti, J., Ganau, S., Sentis, M., Zwiggelaar, R., … Marti, R. (2018). Automated Breast Ultrasound Lesions Detection Using Convolutional Neural Networks. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics, 22(4), 1218-1226. doi:10.1109/jbhi.2017.2731873Moon, W. K., Lee, Y.-W., Ke, H.-H., Lee, S. H., Huang, C.-S., & Chang, R.-F. (2020). Computer‐aided diagnosis of breast ultrasound images using ensemble learning from convolutional neural networks. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 190, 105361. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2020.105361LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015). Deep learning. Nature, 521(7553), 436-444. doi:10.1038/nature14539Miotto, R., Wang, F., Wang, S., Jiang, X., & Dudley, J. T. (2017). Deep learning for healthcare: review, opportunities and challenges. Briefings in Bioinformatics, 19(6), 1236-1246. doi:10.1093/bib/bbx044Shin, H.-C., Roth, H. R., Gao, M., Lu, L., Xu, Z., Nogues, I., … Summers, R. M. (2016). Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Computer-Aided Detection: CNN Architectures, Dataset Characteristics and Transfer Learning. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 35(5), 1285-1298. doi:10.1109/tmi.2016.2528162Lee, J.-G., Jun, S., Cho, Y.-W., Lee, H., Kim, G. B., Seo, J. B., & Kim, N. (2017). Deep Learning in Medical Imaging: General Overview. Korean Journal of Radiology, 18(4), 570. doi:10.3348/kjr.2017.18.4.570Suzuki, K. (2017). Overview of deep learning in medical imaging. Radiological Physics and Technology, 10(3), 257-273. doi:10.1007/s12194-017-0406-5Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8(5), 336-341. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007Khan, K. S., Kunz, R., Kleijnen, J., & Antes, G. (2003). Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 96(3), 118-121. doi:10.1177/014107680309600304Han, S., Kang, H.-K., Jeong, J.-Y., Park, M.-H., Kim, W., Bang, W.-C., & Seong, Y.-K. (2017). A deep learning framework for supporting the classification of breast lesions in ultrasound images. Physics in Medicine & Biology, 62(19), 7714-7728. doi:10.1088/1361-6560/aa82ecMoreira, I. C., Amaral, I., Domingues, I., Cardoso, A., Cardoso, M. J., & Cardoso, J. S. (2012). INbreast. Academic Radiology, 19(2), 236-248. doi:10.1016/j.acra.2011.09.014Abdelhafiz, D., Yang, C., Ammar, R., & Nabavi, S. (2019). Deep convolutional neural networks for mammography: advances, challenges and applications. BMC Bioinformatics, 20(S11). doi:10.1186/s12859-019-2823-4Byra, M., Jarosik, P., Szubert, A., Galperin, M., Ojeda-Fournier, H., Olson, L., … Andre, M. (2020). Breast mass segmentation in ultrasound with selective kernel U-Net convolutional neural network. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control, 61, 102027. doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2020.102027Jiao, Z., Gao, X., Wang, Y., & Li, J. (2016). A deep feature based framework for breast masses classification. Neurocomputing, 197, 221-231. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2016.02.060Arevalo, J., González, F. A., Ramos-Pollán, R., Oliveira, J. L., & Guevara Lopez, M. A. (2016). Representation learning for mammography mass lesion classification with convolutional neural networks. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 127, 248-257. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2015.12.014Peng, W., Mayorga, R. V., & Hussein, E. M. A. (2016). An automated confirmatory system for analysis of mammograms. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 125, 134-144. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2015.09.019Al-Dhabyani, W., Gomaa, M., Khaled, H., & Fahmy, A. (2020). Dataset of breast ultrasound images. Data in Brief, 28, 104863. doi:10.1016/j.dib.2019.104863Piotrzkowska-Wróblewska, H., Dobruch-Sobczak, K., Byra, M., & Nowicki, A. (2017). Open access database of raw ultrasonic signals acquired from malignant and benign breast lesions. Medical Physics, 44(11), 6105-6109. doi:10.1002/mp.12538Fujita, H. (2020). AI-based computer-aided diagnosis (AI-CAD): the latest review to read first. Radiological Physics and Technology, 13(1), 6-19. doi:10.1007/s12194-019-00552-4Sengupta, S., Singh, A., Leopold, H. A., Gulati, T., & Lakshminarayanan, V. (2020). Ophthalmic diagnosis using deep learning with fundus images – A critical review. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 102, 101758. doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2019.101758Ganesan, K., Acharya, U. R., Chua, K. C., Min, L. C., & Abraham, K. T. (2013). Pectoral muscle segmentation: A review. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 110(1), 48-57. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2012.10.020Huang, Q., Luo, Y., & Zhang, Q. (2017). Breast ultrasound image segmentation: a survey. International Journal of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery, 12(3), 493-507. doi:10.1007/s11548-016-1513-1Noble, J. A., & Boukerroui, D. (2006). Ultrasound image segmentation: a survey. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 25(8), 987-1010. doi:10.1109/tmi.2006.877092Kallergi, M., Woods, K., Clarke, L. P., Qian, W., & Clark, R. A. (1992). Image segmentation in digital mammography: Comparison of local thresholding and region growing algorithms. Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics, 16(5), 323-331. doi:10.1016/0895-6111(92)90145-yTsantis, S., Dimitropoulos, N., Cavouras, D., & Nikiforidis, G. (2006). A hybrid multi-scale model for thyroid nodule boundary detection on ultrasound images. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 84(2-3), 86-98. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2006.09.006Ilesanmi, A. E., Idowu, O. P., & Makhanov, S. S. (2020). Multiscale superpixel method for segmentation of breast ultrasound. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 125, 103879. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2020.103879Chen, D.-R., Chang, R.-F., Kuo, W.-J., Chen, M.-C., & Huang, Y. .-L. (2002). Diagnosis of breast tumors with sonographic texture analysis using wavelet transform and neural networks. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology, 28(10), 1301-1310. doi:10.1016/s0301-5629(02)00620-8Cheng, H. D., Shan, J., Ju, W., Guo, Y., & Zhang, L. (2010). Automated breast cancer detection and classification using ultrasound images: A survey. Pattern Recognition, 43(1), 299-317. doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2009.05.012Chan, H.-P., Wei, D., Helvie, M. A., Sahiner, B., Adler, D. D., Goodsitt, M. M., & Petrick, N. (1995). Computer-aided classification of mammographic masses and normal tissue: linear discriminant analysis in texture feature space. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 40(5), 857-876. doi:10.1088/0031-9155/40/5/010Tanaka, T., Torii, S., Kabuta, I., Shimizu, K., & Tanaka, M. (2007). Pattern Classification of Nevus with Texture Analysis. IEEJ Transactions on Electrical and Electronic Engineering, 3(1), 143-150. doi:10.1002/tee.20246Singh, B., Jain, V. K., & Singh, S. (2014). Mammogram Mass Classification Using Support Vector Machine with Texture, Shape Features and Hierarchical Centroid Method. Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics, 4(5), 687-696. doi:10.1166/jmihi.2014.1312Pal, N. R., Bhowmick, B., Patel, S. K., Pal, S., & Das, J. (2008). A multi-stage neural network aided system for detection of microcalcifications in digitized mammograms. Neurocomputing, 71(13-15), 2625-2634. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2007.06.015Ayer, T., Chen, Q., & Burnside, E. S. (2013). Artificial Neural Networks in Mammography Interpretation and Diagnostic Decision Making. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine, 2013, 1-10. doi:10.1155/2013/832509Sumbaly, R., Vishnusri, N., & Jeyalatha, S. (2014). Diagnosis of Breast Cancer using Decision Tree Data Mining Technique. International Journal of Computer Applications, 98(10), 16-24. doi:10.5120/17219-7456Landwehr, N., Hall, M., & Frank, E. (2005). Logistic Model Trees. Machine Learning, 59(1-2), 161-205. doi:10.1007/s10994-005-0466-3Abdel-Zaher, A. M., & Eldeib, A. M. (2016). Breast cancer classification using deep belief networks. Expert Systems with Applications, 46, 139-144. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2015.10.015Nishikawa, R. M., Giger, M. L., Doi, K., Metz, C. E., Yin, F.-F., Vyborny, C. J., & Schmidt, R. A. (1994). Effect of case selection on the performance of computer-aided detection schemes. Medical Physics, 21(2), 265-269. doi:10.1118/1.597287Guo, R., Lu, G., Qin, B., & Fei, B. (2018). Ultrasound Imaging Technologies for Breast Cancer Detection and Management: A Review. Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology, 44(1), 37-70. doi:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2017.09.012Kang, C.-C., Wang, W.-J., & Kang, C.-H. (2012). Image segmentation with complicated background by using seeded region growing. AEU - International Journal of Electronics and Communications, 66(9), 767-771. doi:10.1016/j.aeue.2012.01.011Prabusankarlal, K. M., Thirumoorthy, P., & Manavalan, R. (2014). Computer Aided Breast Cancer Diagnosis Techniques in Ultrasound: A Survey. Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics, 4(3), 331-349. doi:10.1166/jmihi.2014.1269Abdallah, Y. M., Elgak, S., Zain, H., Rafiq, M., A. Ebaid, E., & A. Elnaema, A. (2018). Breast cancer detection using image enhancement and segmentation algorithms. Biomedical Research, 29(20). doi:10.4066/biomedicalresearch.29-18-1106K.U, S., & S, G. R. (2016). Objective Quality Assessment of Image Enhancement Methods in Digital Mammography - A Comparative Study. Signal & Image Processing : An International Journal, 7(4), 01-13. doi:10.5121/sipij.2016.7401Pizer, S. M., Amburn, E. P., Austin, J. D., Cromartie, R., Geselowitz, A., Greer, T., … Zuiderveld, K. (1987). Adaptive histogram equalization and its variations. Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, 39(3), 355-368. doi:10.1016/s0734-189x(87)80186-xPisano, E. D., Zong, S., Hemminger, B. M., DeLuca, M., Johnston, R. E., Muller, K., … Pizer, S. M. (1998). Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization image processing to improve the detection of simulated spiculations in dense mammograms. Journal of Digital Imaging, 11(4), 193-200. doi:10.1007/bf03178082Wan, J., Yin, H., Chong, A.-X., & Liu, Z.-H. (2020). Progressive residual networks for image super-resolution. Applied Intelligence, 50(5), 1620-1632. doi:10.1007/s10489-019-01548-8Umehara, K., Ota, J., & Ishida, T. (2017). Super-Resolution Imaging of Mammograms Based on the Super-Resolution Convolutional Neural Network. Open Journal of Medical Imaging, 07(04), 180-195. doi:10.4236/ojmi.2017.74018Dong, C., Loy, C. C., He, K., & Tang, X. (2016). Image Super-Resolution Using Deep Convolutional Networks. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 38(2), 295-307. doi:10.1109/tpami.2015.2439281Jiang, Y., & Li, J. (2020). Generative Adversarial Network for Image Super-Resolution Combining Texture Loss. Applied Sciences, 10(5), 1729. doi:10.3390/app10051729Schultz, R. R., & Stevenson, R. L. (1994). A Bayesian approach to image expansion for improved definition. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, 3(3), 233-242. doi:10.1109/83.287017Lei Zhang, & Xiaolin Wu. (2006). An edge-guided image interpolation algorithm via directional filtering and data fusion. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, 15(8), 2226-2238. doi:10.1109/tip.2006.877407Shorten, C., & Khoshgoftaar, T. M. (2019). A survey on Image Data Augmentation for Deep Learning. Journal of Big Data, 6(1). doi:10.1186/s40537-019-0197-0Weiss, K., Khoshgoftaar, T. M., & Wang, D. (2016). A survey of transfer learning. Journal of Big Data, 3(1). doi:10.1186/s40537-016-0043-6Ling Shao, Fan Zhu, & Xuelong Li. (2015). Transfer Learning for Visual Categorization: A Survey. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Syste

Breast Mass Segmentation Using a Semi-automatic Procedure Based on Fuzzy C-means Clustering

Mammography is the primary modality that helped in the early detection and diagnosis of women breast diseases. Further, the process of extracting the masses in mammogram represents a challenging task facing the radiologists, due to problems such as fuzzy or speculated borders, low contrast and the presence of intensity inhomogeneities. Aims to help the radiologists in the diagnosis of breast cancer, many approaches have been conducted to automatically segment the masses in mammograms. Towards this aim, in this paper, we present a new approach for extraction of tumors from region-of-interest (ROI) using the algorithm of Fuzzy C-Means (FCM) setting two clusters for semi-automated segmentation. The proposed method meant to select as input data the set of pixels that enable to get the meaningful information required to segment the masses with high accuracy. This could be accomplished through eliminating unnecessary pixels, which influence on this process through separating it outside of the input data using an optimal threshold given by monitoring the change of clusters rate during the process of threshold decrementing. The proposed methodology has successfully segmented the masses, with an average sensitivity of 82.02% and specificity of 98.23%

COMPUTER AIDED SYSTEM FOR BREAST CANCER DIAGNOSIS USING CURVELET TRANSFORM

Breast cancer is a leading cause of death among women worldwide. Early detection is the key for improving breast cancer prognosis. Digital mammography remains one of the most suitable tools for early detection of breast cancer. Hence, there are strong needs for the development of computer aided diagnosis (CAD) systems which have the capability to help radiologists in decision making. The main goal is to increase the diagnostic accuracy rate. In this thesis we developed a computer aided system for the diagnosis and detection of breast cancer using curvelet transform. Curvelet is a multiscale transform which possess directionality and anisotropy, and it breaks some inherent limitations of wavelet in representing edges in images. We started this study by developing a diagnosis system. Five feature extraction methods were developed with curvelet and wavelet coefficients to differentiate between different breast cancer classes. The results with curvelet and wavelet were compared. The experimental results show a high performance of the proposed methods and classification accuracy rate achieved 97.30%. The thesis then provides an automatic system for breast cancer detection. An automatic thresholding algorithm was used to separate the area composed of the breast and the pectoral muscle from the background of the image. Subsequently, a region growing algorithm was used to locate the pectoral muscle and suppress it from the breast. Then, the work concentrates on the segmentation of region of interest (ROI). Two methods are suggested to accomplish the segmentation stage: an adaptive thresholding method and a pattern matching method. Once the ROI has been identified, an automatic cropping is performed to extract it from the original mammogram. Subsequently, the suggested feature extraction methods were applied to the segmented ROIs. Finally, the K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifiers were used to determine whether the region is abnormal or normal. At this level, the study focuses on two abnormality types (mammographic masses and architectural distortion). Experimental results show that the introduced methods have very high detection accuracies. The effectiveness of the proposed methods has been tested with Mammographic Image Analysis Society (MIAS) dataset. Throughout the thesis all proposed methods and algorithms have been applied with both curvelet and wavelet for comparison and statistical tests were also performed. The overall results show that curvelet transform performs better than wavelet and the difference is statistically significant

Computer aided diagnosis system for breast cancer using deep learning.

The recent rise of big data technology surrounding the electronic systems and developed toolkits gave birth to new promises for Artificial Intelligence (AI). With the continuous use of data-centric systems and machines in our lives, such as social media, surveys, emails, reports, etc., there is no doubt that data has gained the center of attention by scientists and motivated them to provide more decision-making and operational support systems across multiple domains. With the recent breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, the use of machine learning and deep learning models have achieved remarkable advances in computer vision, ecommerce, cybersecurity, and healthcare. Particularly, numerous applications provided efficient solutions to assist radiologists and doctors for medical imaging analysis, which has remained the essence of the visual representation that is used to construct the final observation and diagnosis. Medical research in cancerology and oncology has been recently blended with the knowledge gained from computer engineering and data science experts. In this context, an automatic assistance or commonly known as Computer-aided Diagnosis (CAD) system has become a popular area of research and development in the last decades. As a result, the CAD systems have been developed using multidisciplinary knowledge and expertise and they have been used to analyze the patient information to assist clinicians and practitioners in their decision-making process. Treating and preventing cancer remains a crucial task that radiologists and oncologists face every day to detect and investigate abnormal tumors. Therefore, a CAD system could be developed to provide decision support for many applications in the cancer patient care processes, such as lesion detection, characterization, cancer staging, tumors assessment, recurrence, and prognosis prediction. Breast cancer has been considered one of the common types of cancers in females across the world. It was also considered the leading cause of mortality among women, and it has been increased drastically every year. Early detection and diagnosis of abnormalities in screened breasts has been acknowledged as the optimal solution to examine the risk of developing breast cancer and thus reduce the increasing mortality rate. Accordingly, this dissertation proposes a new state-of-the-art CAD system for breast cancer diagnosis that is based on deep learning technology and cutting-edge computer vision techniques. Mammography screening has been recognized as the most effective tool to early detect breast lesions for reducing the mortality rate. It helps reveal abnormalities in the breast such as Mass lesion, Architectural Distortion, Microcalcification. With the number of daily patients that were screened is continuously increasing, having a second reading tool or assistance system could leverage the process of breast cancer diagnosis. Mammograms could be obtained using different modalities such as X-ray scanner and Full-Field Digital mammography (FFDM) system. The quality of the mammograms, the characteristics of the breast (i.e., density, size) or/and the tumors (i.e., location, size, shape) could affect the final diagnosis. Therefore, radiologists could miss the lesions and consequently they could generate false detection and diagnosis. Therefore, this work was motivated to improve the reading of mammograms in order to increase the accuracy of the challenging tasks. The efforts presented in this work consists of new design and implementation of neural network models for a fully integrated CAD system dedicated to breast cancer diagnosis. The approach is designed to automatically detect and identify breast lesions from the entire mammograms at a first step using fusion models’ methodology. Then, the second step only focuses on the Mass lesions and thus the proposed system should segment the detected bounding boxes of the Mass lesions to mask their background. A new neural network architecture for mass segmentation was suggested that was integrated with a new data enhancement and augmentation technique. Finally, a third stage was conducted using a stacked ensemble of neural networks for classifying and diagnosing the pathology (i.e., malignant, or benign), the Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) assessment score (i.e., from 2 to 6), or/and the shape (i.e., round, oval, lobulated, irregular) of the segmented breast lesions. Another contribution was achieved by applying the first stage of the CAD system for a retrospective analysis and comparison of the model on Prior mammograms of a private dataset. The work was conducted by joining the learning of the detection and classification model with the image-to-image mapping between Prior and Current screening views. Each step presented in the CAD system was evaluated and tested on public and private datasets and consequently the results have been fairly compared with benchmark mammography datasets. The integrated framework for the CAD system was also tested for deployment and showcase. The performance of the CAD system for the detection and identification of breast masses reached an overall accuracy of 97%. The segmentation of breast masses was evaluated together with the previous stage and the approach achieved an overall performance of 92%. Finally, the classification and diagnosis step that defines the outcome of the CAD system reached an overall pathology classification accuracy of 96%, a BIRADS categorization accuracy of 93%, and a shape classification accuracy of 90%. Results given in this dissertation indicate that our suggested integrated framework might surpass the current deep learning approaches by using all the proposed automated steps. Limitations of the proposed work could occur on the long training time of the different methods which is due to the high computation of the developed neural networks that have a huge number of the trainable parameters. Future works can include new orientations of the methodologies by combining different mammography datasets and improving the long training of deep learning models. Moreover, motivations could upgrade the CAD system by using annotated datasets to integrate more breast cancer lesions such as Calcification and Architectural distortion. The proposed framework was first developed to help detect and identify suspicious breast lesions in X-ray mammograms. Next, the work focused only on Mass lesions and segment the detected ROIs to remove the tumor’s background and highlight the contours, the texture, and the shape of the lesions. Finally, the diagnostic decision was predicted to classify the pathology of the lesions and investigate other characteristics such as the tumors’ grading assessment and type of the shape. The dissertation presented a CAD system to assist doctors and experts to identify the risk of breast cancer presence. Overall, the proposed CAD method incorporates the advances of image processing, deep learning, and image-to-image translation for a biomedical application

Computer-aided detection and diagnosis of breast cancer in 2D and 3D medical imaging through multifractal analysis

This Thesis describes the research work performed in the scope of a doctoral research program and presents its conclusions and contributions. The research activities were carried on in the industry with Siemens S.A. Healthcare Sector, in integration with a research team. Siemens S.A. Healthcare Sector is one of the world biggest suppliers of products, services and complete solutions in the medical sector. The company offers a wide selection of diagnostic and therapeutic equipment and information systems. Siemens products for medical imaging and in vivo diagnostics include: ultrasound, computer tomography, mammography, digital breast tomosynthesis, magnetic resonance, equipment to angiography and coronary angiography, nuclear imaging, and many others. Siemens has a vast experience in Healthcare and at the beginning of this project it was strategically interested in solutions to improve the detection of Breast Cancer, to increase its competitiveness in the sector. The company owns several patents related with self-similarity analysis, which formed the background of this Thesis. Furthermore, Siemens intended to explore commercially the computer- aided automatic detection and diagnosis eld for portfolio integration. Therefore, with the high knowledge acquired by University of Beira Interior in this area together with this Thesis, will allow Siemens to apply the most recent scienti c progress in the detection of the breast cancer, and it is foreseeable that together we can develop a new technology with high potential. The project resulted in the submission of two invention disclosures for evaluation in Siemens A.G., two articles published in peer-reviewed journals indexed in ISI Science Citation Index, two other articles submitted in peer-reviewed journals, and several international conference papers. This work on computer-aided-diagnosis in breast led to innovative software and novel processes of research and development, for which the project received the Siemens Innovation Award in 2012. It was very rewarding to carry on such technological and innovative project in a socially sensitive area as Breast Cancer.No cancro da mama a deteção precoce e o diagnóstico correto são de extrema importância na prescrição terapêutica e caz e e ciente, que potencie o aumento da taxa de sobrevivência à doença. A teoria multifractal foi inicialmente introduzida no contexto da análise de sinal e a sua utilidade foi demonstrada na descrição de comportamentos siológicos de bio-sinais e até na deteção e predição de patologias. Nesta Tese, três métodos multifractais foram estendidos para imagens bi-dimensionais (2D) e comparados na deteção de microcalci cações em mamogramas. Um destes métodos foi também adaptado para a classi cação de massas da mama, em cortes transversais 2D obtidos por ressonância magnética (RM) de mama, em grupos de massas provavelmente benignas e com suspeição de malignidade. Um novo método de análise multifractal usando a lacunaridade tri-dimensional (3D) foi proposto para classi cação de massas da mama em imagens volumétricas 3D de RM de mama. A análise multifractal revelou diferenças na complexidade subjacente às localizações das microcalci cações em relação aos tecidos normais, permitindo uma boa exatidão da sua deteção em mamogramas. Adicionalmente, foram extraídas por análise multifractal características dos tecidos que permitiram identi car os casos tipicamente recomendados para biópsia em imagens 2D de RM de mama. A análise multifractal 3D foi e caz na classi cação de lesões mamárias benignas e malignas em imagens 3D de RM de mama. Este método foi mais exato para esta classi cação do que o método 2D ou o método padrão de análise de contraste cinético tumoral. Em conclusão, a análise multifractal fornece informação útil para deteção auxiliada por computador em mamogra a e diagnóstico auxiliado por computador em imagens 2D e 3D de RM de mama, tendo o potencial de complementar a interpretação dos radiologistas

Cancer diagnosis using deep learning: A bibliographic review

In this paper, we first describe the basics of the field of cancer diagnosis, which includes steps of cancer diagnosis followed by the typical classification methods used by doctors, providing a historical idea of cancer classification techniques to the readers. These methods include Asymmetry, Border, Color and Diameter (ABCD) method, seven-point detection method, Menzies method, and pattern analysis. They are used regularly by doctors for cancer diagnosis, although they are not considered very efficient for obtaining better performance. Moreover, considering all types of audience, the basic evaluation criteria are also discussed. The criteria include the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC curve), Area under the ROC curve (AUC), F1 score, accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, precision, dice-coefficient, average accuracy, and Jaccard index. Previously used methods are considered inefficient, asking for better and smarter methods for cancer diagnosis. Artificial intelligence and cancer diagnosis are gaining attention as a way to define better diagnostic tools. In particular, deep neural networks can be successfully used for intelligent image analysis. The basic framework of how this machine learning works on medical imaging is provided in this study, i.e., pre-processing, image segmentation and post-processing. The second part of this manuscript describes the different deep learning techniques, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), generative adversarial models (GANs), deep autoencoders (DANs), restricted Boltzmann’s machine (RBM), stacked autoencoders (SAE), convolutional autoencoders (CAE), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), long short-term memory (LTSM), multi-scale convolutional neural network (M-CNN), multi-instance learning convolutional neural network (MIL-CNN). For each technique, we provide Python codes, to allow interested readers to experiment with the cited algorithms on their own diagnostic problems. The third part of this manuscript compiles the successfully applied deep learning models for different types of cancers. Considering the length of the manuscript, we restrict ourselves to the discussion of breast cancer, lung cancer, brain cancer, and skin cancer. The purpose of this bibliographic review is to provide researchers opting to work in implementing deep learning and artificial neural networks for cancer diagnosis a knowledge from scratch of the state-of-the-art achievements