The diversity of mind wandering : The role of individual differences and cognitive factors

Many individuals spend a substantial portion of their waking time thinking about topics unrelated to current activities and surroundings (mind wandering). This dissertation sought to contribute to our knowledge of why some people mind wander more than others. Mind wandering in cognitive tasks is more common in individuals with poor executive cognitive control (working memory updating, inhibiting task-inappropriate response, shifting between tasks), but these studies have paid little attention to the variety of contents of mind wandering and individual differences moderators. Individuals vary in how much they find their mind wandering enjoyable or helpful (a positive mind wandering style) or dysphoric and anguished (a negative style). Paper I tested whether positive or negative styles of mind wandering moderated the relation between executive control and mind wandering, which could help reconcile two cognitive hypotheses of mind wandering. The control-failure hypothesis suggests that mind wandering occurs because of disruptions in executive control, whereas the global availability hypothesis suggests that the availability of executive resources fosters mind wandering. The results indicated that the relation between working memory capacity and mind wandering depended on a negative mind wandering style: Those individuals with a high-negative mind wandering style exhibited a negative relation between working memory and mind wandering (consistent with the control-failure hypothesis), whereas the relation was positive in those with a low-negative style (consistent with the global availability hypothesis). Paper II evaluated affect and cognitive variables by relating mind wandering during a signal detection task to individual differences in negative affectivity (neuroticism) and self-regulatory abilities. Mind wandering was associated with neuroticism and low effortful control, but not with shifting ability. Regression analyses indicated that effortful control predicted lower neutral mind wandering whereas neuroticism predicted negative mind wandering. The subsequent two papers extended this research by examining mind wandering, affect, and control in selected populations. A trait relevant to attentional control and negative affect is dissociation, which includes amnesia and experiential disconnectedness from self/others (detachment). Paper III evaluated everyday mentation in people scoring high or low in dissociation and in hypnotic suggestibility (hypnotizability). Mind wandering episodes were characterized by a reduced sense of control/awareness of mentations, especially in those scoring high on both hypnotizability and dissociation. Paper IV applied attachment theory to study everyday mentations in adults with childhood exposures to traumatizing events. A negative mind wandering style and everyday experiences of dissociation, negative affect, and low control/awareness were associated with a self-report, but not a discourse, measure of unresolved/disorganized attachment. The latter construct did not predict overall amount of mind wandering. The results of this dissertation help integrate cognitive hypotheses of mind wandering within broader cognitive, affective, and developmental frameworks. I suggest that mind wandering consists of different subtypes that operate through different cognitive processes in which one is characterized by neutral or negative affect, poor working memory monitoring, and low effortful control, and appears more often in high dissociative/ high hypnotizable individuals, whereas another subtype is characterized by positive affect but is less clear in its relation to executive functioning

Absent without leave; a neuroenergetic theory of mind wandering

abstract: Absent minded people are not under the control of task-relevant stimuli. According to the Neuroenergetics Theory of attention (NeT), this lack of control is often due to fatigue of the relevant processing units in the brain caused by insufficient resupply of the neuron's preferred fuel, lactate, from nearby astrocytes. A simple drift model of information processing accounts for response-time statistics in a paradigm often used to study inattention, the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART). It is suggested that errors and slowing in this fast-paced, response-engaging task may have little to due with inattention. Slower-paced and less response-demanding tasks give greater license for inattention—aka absent-mindedness, mind-wandering. The basic NeT is therefore extended with an ancillary model of attentional drift and recapture. This Markov model, called NEMA, assumes probability λ of lapses of attention from 1 s to the next, and probability α of drifting back to the attentional state. These parameters measure the strength of attraction back to the task (α), or away to competing mental states or action patterns (λ); their proportion determines the probability of the individual being inattentive at any point in time over the long run. Their values are affected by the fatigue of the brain units they traffic between. The deployment of the model is demonstrated with a data set involving paced responding.View the article as published at http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00373/ful

Working memory updating training reduces state repetitive negative thinking: proof-of-concept for a novel cognitive control training (article)

This is the final version. Available on open access from Elsevier via the DOI in this record.The research data supporting this publication are openly available from the University of Exeter's institutional repository at https://doi.org/10.24378/exe.3283Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) is a proximal risk factor implicated in the onset and maintenance of common mental health problems such as depression and anxiety. Adolescence may be a key developmental window in which to target RNT and prevent the emergence of such disorders. Impairments in updating the contents of working memory are hypothesised to causally contribute to RNT, and some theorists have suggested these difficulties may be specific to the manipulation of negative information. The present study compared the effects of computerised adaptive working memory updating training (in which the task becomes more difficult as performance improves) to a non-adaptive control task in reducing levels of RNT. 124 healthy young people were randomised to 20 sessions of (i) working memory updating training using neutral stimuli, (ii) working memory updating training using negative stimuli, or (iii) non-adaptive working memory updating training. Adaptive working memory updating training using neutral, but not negative, stimuli resulted in significant improvements to working memory updating for negative material, as assessed using an unpractised task, and significant reductions in susceptibility to state RNT. These findings demonstrate proof-of-concept that working memory updating training has the potential to reduce susceptibility to episodes of state RNT.Wellcome Trus

INVESTIGATING MIND WANDERING IN UNIVERSITY AND COMMUNITY SAMPLES

Mind wandering is a commonly experienced phenomenon that has been the focus of more research over the past few decades. In keeping with changing terminology used to characterize the experience, our understanding of the construct continues to evolve. The current dissertation, composed of three separate studies, sought to build on these recent advancements by adding to our understanding of 1) the assessment of mind wandering, 2) the association between mind wandering and symptoms of attention disorders, and 3) how mindfulness training may impact mind wandering frequency. Study one used ecological momentary assessments (EMA) to investigate the utility of three measures of mind wandering (i.e., Mind Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ), and the Mind Wandering – Spontaneous (MW-S) and Deliberate scales (MW-D) in a university sample (N = 100). Results showed that reporting more mind wandering episodes during the EMA data collection was associated with higher scores on two mind wandering measures (MWQ and MWS), but was not significantly correlated with the MW-D score. The findings highlighted the benefit of using EMA to validate self-report measures designed to capture mind wandering. The second study examined the relation between symptoms of attention difficulties (i.e., Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms and Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (SCT) symptoms) and mind wandering in a group of university students (N = 161). Hierarchical regression analyses were done in an effort to identify the unique contribution of the different symptom dimensions on trait levels of mind wandering. Endorsement of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo symptoms was found to be a consistent predictor across the different measures of mind wandering, with symptoms of ADHD also predicting the MWQ and MW-S scores. The findings reaffirm the association between mind wandering and attention difficulties. Lastly, building on research demonstrating the positive impact of mindfulness training on attention, the third study was designed with the aim of examining if participation in a mindfulness intervention is associated with reduced self-reported mind wandering and if endorsement of ADHD symptoms can help predict change in mind wandering post-training. Twelve participants recruited from a community in Southwestern Ontario participated in an instructor-led eight-week mindfulness intervention, with the results showing no decrease in self-reported mind wandering following the intervention. ADHD symptom endorsement was also not found to be a significant predictor of change in mind wandering. Importantly, the findings were interpreted with consideration of the recruitment difficulties encountered and insufficient power resulting from the small sample size. In sum, the results from the three studies provide evidence in support of the use of self-report measures of mind wandering, and demonstrate the importance of examining the association between mind wandering and attention disorder symptoms. The findings also reaffirm the need to differentiate between spontaneous and deliberate mind wandering and highlight the potential clinical implications

The causal role of attentional control within depressive rumination

Objectives: Due to a number of conceptual and methodological limitations, existing research has provided only equivocal evidence that deficits/biases in attentional control (AC) are causally implicated in depressive rumination and/or that Cognitive Control Training (CCT) can be used to remediate such vulnerabilities. By using a well-validated training task and ensuring adequate training exposure, the current study aimed to examine the hypothesis that daily CCT would reduce rumination and improve mood among participants with elevated ruminative disposition. Method: Using a multiple baseline design (MBD), eight high-ruminating university participants rated their daily levels of rumination and mood before and after the randomly-determined introduction of daily CCT, designed to enhance their level of AC. Daily ratings were compared before and after the introduction of CCT, using systematic visual analysis and randomisation tests for significance at the group level. Results: No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that daily CCT reduces rumination and/or improve mood. While participants improved in their performance within the CCT across the training period, there was no evidence of near- or far-transfer, visual analysis revealed no impact of the introduction of daily training, and all group-level analyses were non-significant (p ≥ .05). Conclusion: Despite addressing a number of conceptual/methodological concerns, the current study provides no further support for AC theories of rumination or the use of CCT-based treatments for depression. Such conclusions must be interpreted in light of other methodological limitations, however, including the use of a non-clinical sample and the use of MBD to detect delayed treatment effects

Towards a momentary perspective in entrepreneurial learning

Objectives This chapter explores how conceptualising ‘the moment’ in entrepreneurship contributes to understanding entrepreneurial processes of learning and creativity. It proposes that the significance of ‘the aha moment’ in entrepreneurial behaviour is widely used at a popular level but is not well explored in relation to knowledge of human learning. The ‘moment’ is taken to be a point in time when we experience conscious mental awareness of what is going on, are aware and able to generate meaning from this, and to remember our thinking and responses. The aims of the chapter are: 1. To explore the connections between the concept of the moment in entrepreneurship with processes of learning and creativity. 2. To develop a framework which can be used to understand momentary perspectives in entrepreneurship. 3. To explore the implications for entrepreneurial education and for practice. Prior Work The chapter summarises current and emerging knowledge of ‘the moment’ across associated domains of knowledge in philosophy, literature, social education, cognitive psychology, and learning. Approach A limited-scale survey of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship educators; and an evaluation of entrepreneurs’ learning from a business leadership programme is used to present contextual material which illustrates and provides supporting evidence for a momentary perspective. Results Types of entrepreneurial moment, such as creativity, opportunity discovery or recognition, failure, critical meetings and realisations are identified and an initial conceptual framework for a momentary perspective of entrepreneurial learning and creativity is proposed, consisting of processes of perceiving, generating meaning, and acting. This builds on a synthesis of prior work on narratives and entrepreneurial learning in relation to critical incidents and episodes; emotion; creativity; serendipity; cognitive science; and psychology. Implications The chapter suggests why understanding the moment is significant both from a cultural perspective, and in relation to current and emerging knowledge in associated domains of knowledge. The potential implications for using critical moments in entrepreneurial learning, education and practice are considered, with reference to situated activities such as creative thinking, management learning and entrepreneurial decision-making, practice and future research. Value The rapid development of entrepreneurship in the digital media economy, which depends on instant responses to pervasive communications, combined with the evolving economic, technological and cultural experiences of the post-recession ‘new era’ in entrepreneurship within a changed European and Western economy, have shaped a new context for entrepreneurial working. Momentary learning, creativity and decision-making are of heightened importance in this context

The impact of modifying attentional bias on vulnerability to pain

The preferential deployment of attention to noxious versus benign information in the internal and external environment - “attentional bias” - is thought to confer vulnerability to pain. The current thesis tested this putative mechanism by modifying the bias using the visual-probe task (attentional bias modification; ABM) and examining effects of this experimental manipulation on attentional bias and critical pain outcomes. Drawing on recent evidence that the impact of pain on attentional bias varies across its temporal components, this thesis additionally tested the component stages of attentional bias implicated in pain experience by manipulating the duration for which visual-probe stimuli were presented. Study 1 confirmed that both rapid and slower attentional orienting was biased in individuals with persistent musculoskeletal pain. Results from Studies 2 and 3 indicated that acute experimentally-induced pain modified the faster bias and that participants whose fast bias was modified had reduced vulnerability to cold pressor pain, in comparison with control participants. This suggested that mechanisms of initial orienting were more active in the acute pain experience. Studies 4 and 5 revealed that concurrently retraining fast and slower bias was optimal for persistent musculoskeletal pain. Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis indicated a small overall statistical effect of ABM on pain severity. Critically, however, whereas ABM had been effective at reducing acute pain severity, this was not the case for persistent pain. Overall, these findings suggest that the faster bias influenced vulnerability to acute pain, indicating a potential therapeutic target for future research. However, retraining the earlier stage of attention alone did not influence persistent pain outcomes, where there appeared to be greater involvement of the slower bias. It was concluded that not only could attentional bias influence critical pain outcomes, but that the optimal timings may vary across temporal pain classifications

An Examination of Cognitive Biases and Imagery in Perfectionism

This present research explores the relationship between perfectionism and the tendency for individuals to focus their attention towards, and interpret ambiguous information as, stimuli that signals failure. The relationship between perfectionism, repetitive negative thinking, imagery and psychological distress was also explored. Perfectionism was associated with an increased likelihood to focus on failure, interpret ambiguous information in way that indicated failure, and were more likely to experience distress due to intrusive images about the future

The Relationships Among Age, Physical Activity, and Working Memory

As our population ages, determining exogenous factors that may offset cognitive decline become increasingly important. The primary goal of the present study was to determine whether older individuals who engage in regular physical activity demonstrate superior working memory performance relative to older sedentary individuals. Forty young (20 active, 20 sedentary) and forty older (20 active, 20 sedentary) individuals engaged in cognitive measures of information processing speed, inhibitory function, and verbal and visuospatial working memory. Age differences in recall were found for verbal and visuospatial span tasks, as well as for recall reaction time on verbal and visuospatial n-back tasks, and age-related performance decrements were exacerbated in the most difficult task conditions. All participants performed less accurately and took longer to respond to stimuli as the verbal and visuospatial n-back tasks became more difficult. A second objective was to examine the effects of age and physical activity on frontal midline theta and hemispheric alpha, as a function of verbal and visuospatial n-back task difficulty. Frontal midline theta recorded at Fz increased for all participants as taskload increased for the verbal, but not visuospatial n-back task. However, as the visuospatial task became more difficult, the younger group showed a greater increase in frontal midline theta than the older group. Neither age, physical activity, nor taskload had an effect on frontal and parietal alpha asymmetry as analyzed from recordings at F3, F4, P3, and P4. The third objective was to evaluate the degree to which physical activity was related to information processing speed and inhibitory function in older adults, as these two constructs are associated with working memory. Cognitive processing speed, attention accuracy, and attention reaction time were all influenced by age. The hypothesized interaction between age and physical activity was not observed for any of the behavioral nor physiological measurements. Several possible explanations for why the main predictions were not supported are discussed, including the idea that it may be physical fitness, rather than physical activity, which contributes to healthy adult brain aging