ICES Viewpoint background document: Impact from exhaust gas cleaning systems (scrubbers) on the marine environment (Ad hoc).

Shipping is a diverse industry that connects the world. The distribution and intensity of commercial shipping is increasing and there is a growing need to assess and mitigate the impacts of vessel activities on the marine environment. New global standards on sulphur content in marine fuels have led to an increasing number of ships installing exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCS), also known as scrubbers, to reduce their emissions of sulphur oxides to the atmosphere. Ships equipped with a scrubber can continue to use heavy fuel oil, and the process results in discharges of large volumes of acidified water that contain a mix of contaminants, such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oil residues, and nitrates. For the most common type of scrubber, open loop, this polluted water is directly discharged back to the sea, trading reductions in air pollution for increased water pollution. The scrubber discharge mixture has demonstrated toxic effects in laboratory studies, causing immediate mortality in plankton and exhibiting negative synergistic effects. The substances found in scrubber discharge water are likely to have further impacts in the marine environment through bioaccumulation, acidification and eutrophication. The impacts of scrubber discharge water can be completely avoided through the use of alternative fuels, such as distilled low sulphur fuels. Distilled fuels have the added benefit that they remove the threat of heavy fuel oil spills from shipping activities. If the use of alternative fuels is not adopted, and scrubbers continue to be considered an equivalent method to meet the sulphur emissions limits, then there is urgent need for:1) significant investment in technological advances and port reception facilities to allow zero discharge closed loop scrubber systems;2) improved protocols and standards for measuring, monitoring and reporting on scrubber discharge water acidity and pollutants;3) evidence-based regulations on scrubber water discharge limits that consider the full suite of contaminants

Perspectives on shipping emissions and their impacts on the surface ocean and lower atmosphere: An environmental-social-economic dimension

Shipping is the cornerstone of international trade and thus a critical economic sector. However, ships predominantly use fossil fuels for propulsion and electricity generation, which emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, and air pollutants such as particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds. The availability of Automatic Information System (AIS) data has helped to improve the emission inventories of air pollutants from ship stacks. Recent laboratory, shipborne, satellite and modeling studies provided convincing evidence that ship-emitted air pollutants have significant impacts on atmospheric chemistry, clouds, and ocean biogeochemistry. The need to improve air quality to protect human health and to mitigate climate change has driven a series of regulations at international, national, and local levels, leading to rapid energy and technology transitions. This resulted in major changes in air emissions from shipping with implications on their environmental impacts, but observational studies remain limited. Growth in shipping in polar areas is expected to have distinct impacts on these pristine and sensitive environments. The transition to more sustainable shipping is also expected to cause further changes in fuels and technologies, and thus in air emissions. However, major uncertainties remain on how future shipping emissions may affect atmospheric composition, clouds, climate, and ocean biogeochemistry, under the rapidly changing policy (e.g., targeting decarbonization), socioeconomic, and climate contexts

A novel approach to environmental assessment of ships : development of a performance index for ship operation

PhD ThesisShipping has a considerable impact on the environment due to operational and accidental pollutant releases. Maritime environmental legislation has tightened in recent years since the introduction of the MARPOL 73/78 regulations, however there is often a significant time gap between when the regulations are adopted and when they legally enter force. The emergence of private voluntary initiatives has occurred in an attempt to bridge this gap, reduce environmental impacts and raise the environmental profile of ships. However, there are inconsistencies in the methodologies used to define ship performance, while the number and diversity of initiatives available for use can cause confusion, hindering progress towards greater sustainability. A critical analysis of existing environmental initiatives in the shipping industry has been conducted, highlighting limitations with regards to applicability, scope, ambition, and integrity of the methodologies adopted. Many of the existing initiatives lack the flexibility to be ship specific and show bias towards certain environmental indicators, and lack the ambition to set stringent standards. Many of the schemes use proxy indicators based on design criteria as a measure of environmental performance rather than actual emissions and discharges. An alternative approach to environmental assessment of ships is proposed which offers a holistic method of assessment, can be applied to multiple vessel types using a broad, relevant scope based on environmental impacts, and assesses performance based on actual emissions and discharges of pollutants to the environment. The proposed method, the VEP index, adopts a risk assessment based methodology and is intended as a holistic framework for assessment of ship environmental performance. The VEP index is rigorously tested using operational data from two case study vessels. The results clearly distinguish which of the vessels performs better environmentally, and highlight the suitability of the index for comparing vessel environmental performance. When compared with other indices used in the shipping sector, the VEP index provides a more accurate assessment of environmental performance based on ships’ operational emissions.Lloyds Register and EPSR

Biodiversity impacts of ship movement, noise, grounding and anchoring

Marine life in the Mediterranean Sea is threatened by intensive human activities such as fisheries, ship traffic, pollution and coastal development. Cetaceans and other vertebrates are affected not only by chemical pollution, but also by noise pollution (Richardson et al., 1995; Simmonds et al., 2004). Noise has become a ubiquitous form of marine pollution, especially in areas of heavy maritime traffic and along developed coasts. Intense underwater noise is generated by airguns, widely used for geophysical exploration in the oil and gas industry as well as for academic and government research purposes; by high power sonar, either military or civilian; by ship traffic; by shoreline and offshore construction works; and by a number of other commercial, scientific, military and industrial sources. The most powerful noises (from airguns, sonars, and explosions) may directly injure animals in the vicinity of the source. General ship traffic, heavy industries on the coast and a variety of other human activities generally do not generate such intense noise, but the acoustic pollution they produce is constant over time and may affect large areas. It may be a serious hazard not only to individual animals, but also to entire populations. Such increased background noise affects underwater life just as airborne noise affects terrestrial animals, including human beings.peer-reviewe

Is an NWP-Based Nowcasting System Suitable for Aviation Operations?

The growth of air transport demand expected over the next decades, along with the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfalls and severe storms due to climate change, will pose a tough challenge for air traffic management systems, with implications for flight safety, delays and passengers. In this context, the Satellite-borne and IN-situ Observations to Predict The Initiation of Convection for ATM (SINOPTICA) project has a dual aim, first to investigate if very short-range high-resolution weather forecast, including data assimilation, can improve the predictive capability of these events, and then to understand if such forecasts can be suitable for air traffic management purposes. The intense squall line that affected Malpensa, the major airport by passenger traffic in northern Italy, on 11 May 2019 is selected as a benchmark. Several numerical experiments are performed with a Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model using two assimilation techniques, 3D-Var in WRF Data Assimilation (WRFDA) system and a nudging scheme for lightning, in order to improve the forecast accuracy and to evaluate the impact of assimilated different datasets. To evaluate the numerical simulations performance, three different verification approaches, object-based, fuzzy and qualitative, are used. The results suggest that the assimilation of lightning data plays a key role in triggering the convective cells, improving both location and timing. Moreover, the numerical weather prediction (NWP)-based nowcasting system is able to produce reliable forecasts at high spatial and temporal resolution. The timing was found to be suitable for helping Air Traffic Management (ATM) operators to compute alternative landing trajectories

Environmental impact of passenger ships in port

The environmental impact of ships can be of different types. This thesis covers air pollution due to chemicals and concentrates on local effects due to compounds emitted in the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines and acoustic pollution. The attention has been focused on the consequences of the presence of many ships in ports located close to inhabited zones. For port-scale analyzes, the case study is the port of Naples for which traffics, geographic conformation, meteorological conditions, results of experimental campaigns both in the field of acoustic and environmental impact are available. In the field of polluting emissions, the case study for the simulations is a catamaran in service at the port of Naples for which experimental measurements at sea and bench tests are available. For the simulation of acoustic emissions, the case study is a passenger ship for which experimental measurements and forecast data are available. Experimental campaigns and simulations have been carried out on the port of Naples and most of the applications concern passenger ships, but methods and procedures can be applied to a general case. The thesis consists of six chapters, briefly introduced here. Each chapter contains a first subsection named "aims and scope" precisely to describe its main purposes in a more extended way than the summary presented here. The theme is first framed in the more general context of the environmental impact of anthropogenic activities and of marine transportation in particular assessment studies and documents issued by international bodies reporting targets for limiting the global environmental impact of the shipping sector are briefly summarized. Recalls on the main mechanisms of formation and reduction of pollutants are exposed. The second chapter describes the bottom-up method aimed at estimating the emissions of passenger ships in port. To obtain an estimation of all the emissions a series of very specific steps are necessary. The main information to be collected and produced concerns: traffic, routes, arrival and departure schedules, engine loads, emissions, heights, and diameters of the funnels. The technique of data collection and its use was gradually deepened (from simple cruise calendar to AIS data). The main application on the entire port sees the use of AIS data. The starting AIS data have been processed through an "ad hoc" MATLAB code capable of managing a relevant amount of data and returning a complete calendar of all the movements of every ship arriving and operating in the port. The use of AIS data has brought about improvements in the calculation methodology for emissions as well, allowing for example a more accurate analysis of average speeds in port and idle times. The port of Naples, where all the analysis were developed, is presented next. The traffics for the years and reference periods chosen in the subsequent analyzes are presented (2012, 2016, and 2018). A comprehensive study of the environmental impact of ships cannot be separated from the creation of atmospheric dispersion models. These models require the flow of pollutants emitted in the main operational phases in port (navigation, maneuvering, and mooring) as the main inputs. The results allow to estimate the weight that the passenger branch has on air quality also thanks to cross-comparisons with port measurements and ARPAC (Regional Agency for Environmental Protection in Campania) data. After the analysis of the environmen0tal impact on a port scale, the problem of emissions has been approached by applying a designated simulation, with the aim to overcome the use of emission factors. The first part of the chapter describes a state of the art of simulation model and an in-depth analysis of the main emission simulation methodologies. An engine model has been created in RICARDO WAVE environment; this engine model was validated and calibrated on an engine installed onboard a passenger ship operating in the port of Naples. Bench test results in terms of power, torque, consumption, and rpm have been used to calibrate the model while experimental measurements validated it. In the dissertation, a description of the case study (ship, engine, bench tests, and sea trials), a description of the model, and an interpretation of the results are presented. The validation on sea trials shows the effectiveness of the model both in terms of main engine parameters and emissions. At the end of the chapter, a comparison between the three emission estimation methodologies (EMEP-EEA, with AIS data, simulations, and experimental campaign) has been carried out. The next chapter of the thesis concerns the assessment of the acoustic impact of passenger ships in port. The structure of the research is typically the same: simulation and experimental results. The first part shows some experimental surveys made on a passenger ship in port that served as validation of a simulation model built in the TERRAIN OLIVE TREE LAB SUITE environment. The second and last part presents the methodology and results obtained in the context of a collaborative research project between the Universities of Naples, Genoa, and Trieste. The project aimed at characterizing the acoustic impact of a ship in light of the new additional class notation published by the Lloyds Register "Procedure for the Determination of Airborne Noise Emissions from Marine Vessels Airborne Noise Emissions from Marine Vessels". The last chapter sets out three applications in order to keep the problem set in a global scale context. The first presents an analysis of the possible countermeasures that can be applied to the cruise ship fleet aimed at environmental safeguarding (DNV Appraisal Tool), in the wake of the EEOI and EEDI. Furthermore, in the context of the environmental impact on a port scale, preliminary measurements of polluting emissions using remote measurement instruments (LIDAR) were carried out with the aim of allowing an indirect estimate of the concentrations of pollutants in the exhausts of ships, thus significantly reducing the uncertainties related to ground-level measurements with active or passive samplers. The last application, on the other hand, concerns the ports and the possible activities and initiatives to be implemented in order to host fleet of increasingly green and eco-sustainable ships (Environmental Ship Index)

Abordagem transfronteiriça do lixo marinho : a exportação de resíduos flutuantes ao longo de um gradiente estuarino e seus impactos socioeconômicos

Orientador : Prof. Dr. Alexander TurraTese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências da Terra, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Sistemas Costeiros e Oceânicos. Defesa: Pontal do Paraná, 31/03/2017Inclui referências: fls. 160-177Resumo: O presente estudo adotou uma abordagem multidisciplinar para investigar o lixo marinho ao longo do Complexo Estuarino de Paranaguá (CEP) e adjacências. Este trabalho está fundamentado em três capítulos baseados em abordagens complementares: investigar a dispersão e a trajetória do lixo marinho usando modelos hidrodinâmicos associados a coletas de campo (Capítulo 1); analisar a influência de eventos oceanográficos e meteorológicos [altas vazões de rios (AV), Sistemas Frontais (SF) e condições meteorológicas regulares (CMR)] sobre a quantidade e a qualidade do lixo marinho (Capítulo 2); e compreender a percepção e a reação dos usuários de praia à presença de lixo marinho (atual e futura) para estimar seus efeitos econômicos (Capítulo 3). No gradiente do CEP, três setores foram estabelecidos para realizar as análises espaciais: Interno (dominado por marés); Mediano (dominado por ondas com influência de desembocadura) e Externo (dominado por ondas). Os resultados das rodadas de modelagem indicaram um tempo de residência menor do que 5 dias do lixo marinho flutuante no interior do CEP, antes de ser exportado pela desembocadura. Uma vez no oceano aberto, o lixo marinho apresenta uma deriva inicial no sentido Sul, seguida por uma dispersão no sentido Norte. Ao longo dessa trajetória o lixo marinho pode ser espraiado, dependendo da ocorrência de condições oceanográficas ou meteorológicas específicas. Esses resultados indicam que o lixo marinho é um problema transfronteiriço no CEP. Demonstrou-se que a influência dessas condições é importante para a distribuição do lixo marinho, tanto espacial quanto temporalmente. Altas vazões (AV) foram determinantes para o aumento da abundância geral de itens, riqueza de tipos e para a quantidade da maioria das fontes estudadas. Os menores valores de abundância variaram se comparados os setores interno (CMR) e externo (SF). De maneira geral, a influência de cada condição sobre o lixo marinho do setor dominado por marés pode ser observada, entretanto, as influências no ambiente dominado por ondas são mais complexas. Considerando que as condições de AV são mais frequentes durante o verão, maiores quantidades de lixo marinho são esperadas no mesmo momento em que ocorre o aumento no número de usuários de praia. A percepção e a reação de proprietários de segunda residência (Veranista) e de Turistas não-recorrentes (Turista) em duas praias (Pontal do Sul, praia de desembocadura estuarina; Ipanema, praia oceânica) indicaram que estes grupos se diferenciam pelos gastos diários (Turista>Veranista), frequência de viagens (Veranista>Turista) e tempo de permanência (Veranista>Turista). A praia oceânica (Ipanema) foi pior avaliada considerando a qualidade geral da praia e a principal origem do lixo nas praias foi atribuída aos "usuários de praia" (>75%). Na praia de desembocadura (Pontal do Sul), os usuários citaram a origem "marinha" quatro vezes mais frequentemente (>35%). Mais de 85% dos usuários afirmaram não ir mais àquela praia, caso mais de 15 itens/m2 fossem observados. As praias alternativas seriam fora do Estado (>50%) ou fora do município de Pontal do Paraná (>80%), gerando efeitos econômicos negativos. Foi estimada uma redução potencial de aproximadamente 39% da receita do turismo, levando a uma perda anual de até US$8,5 milhões para o município e US$5,7 milhões para o estado. Concluiu-se que o lixo marinho é uma preocupação transfronteiriça para o CEP, especialmente pela exportação de resíduos flutuantes e perdas potenciais de receita, sendo extremamente influenciado por eventos meteorológicos e oceanográficos. Recomenda-se a aplicação de métodos de gestão, baseados em conhecimentos derivados de abordagens transfronteiriças, especialmente em zonas de transição terra-água, como é o caso do CEP. Palavras-chave: lixo marinho, transfronteiriça, modelagem hidrodinâmica, condições oceanográficas, condições meteorológicas, efeitos econômicos, estuárioAbstract: This study adopted a multidisciplinary approach to investigate marine debris along the Paranaguá Estuarine Complex (PEC) and adjacent areas. The rationale of this study was structured in three chapters with complimentary approaches: investigating dispersal and the trajectories of marine debris using hydrodynamical modelling associated to in situ sampling efforts (Chapter I); analyzing the influence of discrete oceanographic and climatic events [High Riverine Discharges (HRD), Frontal Systems (FS) and Regular Weather Conditions (RWC)] on marine debris quantity and quality (Chapter II); and comprehending the perception and reactions of beach users to actual and eventual marine debris abundance, respectively, thus estimating its potential negative economic effects (Chapter III). In the Paranaguá Estuarine Complex gradient, three sectors [Internal (I, tide-dominated), Median (M, wave-dominated/outlet) and external (E; wave-dominated)] were considered for analysis of spatial variances. Results of modeling indicate a residence time shorter than 5 days for floating marine debris before being exported through the estuary mouth. In the open-ocean, floating debris tend to drift firstly southward, followed by a northerly dispersion. Along this trajectory marine debris can be stranded due to meteorological and oceanographical conditions. These findings reveal that floating marine debris is a transboundary concern for the PEC. The influence of these conditions was demonstrated to play an important role in marine debris spatial and temporal distribution. Higher Riverine Discharges (HRD) were determinant in increasing overall abundance, richness of types and quantities of most of the sources. The lowest records for overall abundance varied among internal (RWC) and external (FS) sectors. By identifying the influences of each factor in the internal sector, it was possible to postulate the process of influence of each condition over the tide-dominated sector. However, influences in the external sector might be more complex. Considering that the HRD conditions are more frequent during summer periods, greatest amounts of debris may be seen during periods with more beach users. The perceptions and reactions of second-home owners and users (SHOU) and non-recurrent tourists (T) in two beaches (Pontal do Sul, PS, estuarine-outlet beach; Ipanema, I, open-ocean beach) indicate that these groups were different due to daily expenses (T>SHOU), period of permanence per trip (SHOU>T) and frequency of trips (SHOU>T). The open-ocean beach (I) was worse rated regarding overall beach quality and marine debris generation was mainly attributed to local beach users (>75%). In the estuarine beach (PS), users cited the "marine" source four times more frequently (>35%). More than 85% of beachgoers would avoid a polluted beach with more than 15items/m2 and alternative destinations would be out of the state (>50%) and out of the municipality (>80%), thus generating transboundary negative economic effects. A potential reduction for local tourism income of 39% was estimated, leading to a decrease in tourism revenue of up to US$8.5 and US$5.7 million per year for the municipality and the state, respectively. In conclusion, the marine debris is a transboundary concern for the PEC due to the exportation of floating debris and the potential losses of income for the municipality and the state. The dispersion is highly influenced by oceanographic and meteorological events. The application of innovative management methods based on the knowledge derived from the transboundary approach is recommended, especially in land-sea transition zones, like PEC. Keywords: marine debris, transboundary, modeling, oceanographical conditions, meteorological conditions, economic effects, estuar