Minimum cost VRP with time-dependent speed data and congestion charge

A heuristic algorithm, called LANCOST, is introduced for vehicle routing and scheduling problems to minimize the total travel cost, where the total travel cost includes fuel cost, driver cost and congestion charge. The fuel cost required is influenced by the speed. The speed for a vehicle to travel along any road in the network varies according to the time of travel. The variation in speed is caused by congestion which is greatest during morning and evening rush hours. If a vehicle enters the congestion charge zone at any time, a fixed charge is applied. A benchmark dataset is designed to test the algorithm. The algorithm is also used to schedule a fleet of delivery vehicles operating in the London area

On green routing and scheduling problem

The vehicle routing and scheduling problem has been studied with much interest within the last four decades. In this paper, some of the existing literature dealing with routing and scheduling problems with environmental issues is reviewed, and a description is provided of the problems that have been investigated and how they are treated using combinatorial optimization tools

Minimizing the carbon emissions on road networks

The models and algorithms developed for transportation planning, vehicle routing, path finding and the software that utilize them are usually based on distance and constant travel times between the relevant locations and aim at minimizing total distance or travel time . However, constant travel time assumption is not realistic on road networks as the traffic conditions may vary from morning/evening rush hours to off-peak noon/night hours, from the weekends to business days, even from one season to another. Thus, distance/time based optimization does not exactly reflect the real fuel consumptions, hence the actual costs; neither can they be used to accurately account for the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A distance/constant time based optimization model may even yield an infeasible solution when time-windows exist or the route length is time limited. In this study, we first analyze the peculiar characteristics of the Greenest Path Problem (GPP) where the objective is to find the least GHG generating path from an origin to a destination on the road network. We then propose a fast heuristic method for determining the greenest path, by incorporating fuel consumption and GHG emission objectives. Finally, we integrate the proposed algorithm into the Green Vehicle Routing Problem that minimizes the GHG emissions rather than the total distance or travel time. The developed heuristic is benchmarked against the existing algorithms by using synthetic traffic data on a real road network to illustrate potential savings and sustainability benefits

The role of operational research in green freight transportation

Recent years have witnessed an increased awareness of the negative external impacts of freight transportation. The field of Operational Research (OR) has, particularly in the recent years, continued to contribute to alleviating the negative impacts through the use of various optimization models and solution techniques. This paper presents the basic principles behind and an overview of the existing body of recent research on ‘greening’ freight transportation using OR-based planning techniques. The particular focus is on studies that have been described for two heavily used modes for transporting freight across the globe, namely road (including urban and electric vehicles) and maritime transportation, although other modes are also briefly discussed

Internalizing negative externalities in vehicle routing problems through green taxes and green tolls

Road freight transportation includes various internal and external costs that need to be accounted for in the construction of efficient routing plans. Typically, the resulting optimization problem is formulated as a vehicle routing problem in any of its variants. While the traditional focus of the vehicle routing problem was the minimization of internal routing costs such as travel distance or duration, numerous approaches to include external factors related to environmental routing aspects have been recently discussed in the literature. However, internal and external routing costs are often treated as competing objectives. This paper discusses the internalization of external routing costs through the consideration of green taxes and green tolls. Numeric experiments with a biased-randomization savings algorithm, show benefits of combining internal and external costs in delivery route planning.Peer Reviewe

Finding least fuel emission paths in a network with time-varying speeds

This article considers the problem of finding a route and schedule for a vehicle starting from a depot, visiting a set of customers, and returning to the depot, in a time-dependent network where the objective is to minimize the greenhouse gas emissions. In this formulation, the speeds of the vehicle as well as the routes chosen are decision variables subject to limits determined by the level of congestion on the roads at the time. Two methods are proposed to find the optimal strategy for a single route. One is a time-increment-based dynamic programming method, and the other is a new heuristic approach. In addition, a case study is carried out, which compares the performances of these methods, as well as the least polluting routes with the shortest time routes between two customer nodes

A Survey on Environmentally Friendly Vehicle Routing Problem and a Proposal of Its Classification

The growth of environmental awareness and more robust enforcement of numerous regulations to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have directed efforts towards addressing current environmental challenges. Considering the Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP), one of the effective strategies to control greenhouse gas emissions is to convert the fossil fuel-powered fleet into Environmentally Friendly Vehicles (EFVs). Given the multitude of constraints and assumptions defined for different types of VRPs, as well as assumptions and operational constraints specific to each type of EFV, many variants of environmentally friendly VRPs (EF-VRP) have been introduced. In this paper, studies conducted on the subject of EF-VRP are reviewed, considering all the road transport EFV types and problem variants, and classifying and discussing with a single holistic vision. The aim of this paper is twofold. First, it determines a classification of EF-VRP studies based on different types of EFVs, i.e., Alternative-Fuel Vehicles (AFVs), Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Vehicles (HVs). Second, it presents a comprehensive survey by considering each variant of the classification, technical constraints and solution methods arising in the literature. The results of this paper show that studies on EF-VRP are relatively novel and there is still room for large improvements in several areas. So, to determine future insights, for each classification of EF-VRP studies, the paper provides the literature gaps and future research needs

Time-dependent routing : models, algorithms, and the value of information

Le problème de tournées de véhicules (Vehicle routing problem - VRP), introduit il y a plus de 60 ans, demeure au cœur des systèmes de transport. Après des décennies de développement, le VRP, par son ensemble très riche de variantes, représente l'un des problèmes les plus étudiés dans la littérature. Pourtant, en raison du manque de données, deux hypothèses importantes font que le VRP ne s'adapte pas efficacement au trafic et à la congestion, deux éléments importants pour modéliser de façon réelle des problèmes pratiques. Une première hypothèse considère que la vitesse de déplacement est constante dans le temps. La seconde, considère que chaque paire de nœuds (clients) n'est reliée que par un arc, ignorant le réseau routier implicite (sous-jacent). La congestion de la circulation est l'un des plus grands défis des systèmes de transport. Ces systèmes étant directement affectés par la congestion, l'ensemble de la chaîne d'approvisionnement doit s'adapter à ce facteur, ce qui n'est pas simple. La croissance continue du fret au cours des dernières années aggrave encore la situation et une attention renouvelée à la mobilité, à l'environnement et à la logistique urbaine a mis en lumière ces questions. Récemment, les avancées technologiques en communication et en acquisition de données en temps réel ont permis de collecter plusieurs informations sur les véhicules telles que leur localisation, leur accélération, leur vitesse, leur décélération, etc. Ainsi, nous pouvons remettre en question la façon dont nous définissons, modélisons et résolvons les problèmes de transport. Ceci nous permet de surmonter les deux hypothèses mentionnées en intégrant non seulement les informations relatives à la congestion, mais aussi en considérant l'ensemble du réseau routier. Dans cette thèse nous considérons l'ensemble du réseau routier sous-jacent, ce qui signifie que nous avons les nœuds clients mais également tous les nœuds intermédiaires qui constituent ce réseau. Ensuite, nous modélisons le temps de trajet de chaque route individuellement au cours de la journée. En divisant une journée en petits intervalles, jusqu'à une précision de l'ordre de la seconde, nous prenons en considération des informations précises sur le trafic. Il en résulte un nouveau problème appelé le problème de tournées de véhicules à plus court chemin avec dépendance du temps (Time-dependant shortest path vehicle routing problem - TD-SPVRP), dans lequel nous combinons le problème du plus court chemin avec dépendance du temps et le VRP avec dépendance du temps, créant ainsi un problème plus général et très complexe. Le TD-SPVRP est plus proche des conditions réelles et il constitue le sujet du chapitre 2 où nous le formulons comme un modèle de programmation linéaire en nombres entiers mixtes et concevons une heuristique rapide et efficace pour le résoudre. Nous testons le modèle ainsi que l'heuristique sur des instances générées à partir de données réelles de circulation sur le réseau routier de la ville de Québec, Canada. Les résultats montrent que l'heuristique fournit des solutions de haute qualité avec un écart moyen de 5,66% par rapport aux bornes inférieures déterminées par le modèle. Cependant, le modèle mathématique ne parvient pas à trouver aucune solution pour les instances de données réelles. Pour pouvoir résoudre ce problème complexe, une grande attention a été portée à la performance de l'implantation des algorithmes proposés afin d'améliorer leur rapidité en termes de temps d'exécution. Le problème reste très compliqué, surtout lorsque nous considérons une grande partie du réseau routier sous-jacent avec des données de trafic très précises. Pour cela, nous avons utilisé différentes techniques pour optimiser l'effort de calcul afin de résoudre le problème en évaluant l'impact engendré sur la précision tout en évitant la perte de précieuses informations. Nous avons développé deux types d'agrégation de données couvrant deux niveaux d'information différents. Premièrement, nous avons manipulé la structure du réseau en réduisant sa taille, et deuxièmement en contrôlant le niveau d'agrégation temporel pour générer les données de trafic et pour déterminer la vitesse d'un véhicule à tout moment. Pour la structure du réseau, nous avons utilisé différentes techniques de réduction de graphe pour en réduire la taille. Nous avons étudié la valeur et le compromis de l'information spatiale. Les solutions générées en utilisant le graphe réduit sont analysées dans le Chapitre 3 pour évaluer la qualité et la perte d'information dû à la réduction. Cette analyse démontre également que la transformation classique du TD-SPVRP en un problème de tournées dépendant du temps (Time-dependant VRP - TD-VRP) équivalent résulte en un graphe plus grand qui nécessite un temps de traitement important ce qui a un impact sur la qualité de la solution. Notre développement montre que la résolution du TD-SPVRP nécessite en moyenne 1445 secondes tandis que la résolution du TD-VRP associé nécessite 41 181 secondes. Garder un haut niveau de précision et réussir à réduire la taille du graphe est possible. En particulier, deux procédures de réduction ont été développées, la réduction des nœuds et la réduction des arcs parallèles. Les deux techniques réduisent la taille du graphe. La réduction des nœuds conduit à une amélioration de 1,11%, la réduction des arcs parallèles donne un écart de 2,57% signifiant la présence d'une distorsion dans le graphe réduit. En ce qui concerne les informations sur le trafic, nous avons analysé les compromis entre une grande quantité de données très précises et un plus petit volume de données agrégées avec une perte potentielle d'information. Ceci est fait en analysant la précision des données agrégées sous différents modèles de détermination des temps de parcours. Ces approches sont présentées dans le Chapitre 4. Au niveau de la prévision des temps de parcours, il est important que chaque segment routier ait des observations de vitesse pour chaque intervalle de temps considéré, ce que nous appelons le niveau de couverture du réseau. Notre analyse indique qu'une couverture complète du réseau routier à tout moment de la journée est nécessaire pour atteindre un niveau de précision élevé. Le recours à une agrégation élevée (de grands intervalles de temps) permet de réduire la taille du problème et d'obtenir une meilleure couverture des données, mais au prix d'une perte d'information. Les modèles analysés, LTM (link travel mode) et FSM (flow speed model), partagent les mêmes performances lorsqu'on utilise un grand intervalle de temps (120, 300 et 600 secondes), donc un niveau d'agrégation plus élevé, avec un écart moyen absolu de 5,5% par rapport aux temps de parcours observés. Cependant, avec une courte période (1, 10, 30 et 60 secondes), FSM fonctionne mieux que LTM. Pour un intervalle d'une seconde, FSM donne un écart absolu moyen de 6,70%, tandis que LTM fournit un écart de 11,17%. Ce chapitre détermine ainsi sous quelles conditions les modèles d'estimation de temps de parcours fonctionnent bien et procurent des estimations fidèles des temps de parcours réalisés. Cette thèse est structurée de la manière suivante. À la suite d'une introduction générale dans laquelle nous présentons le cadre conceptuel de la thèse et son organisation, le Chapitre 1 présente une revue de la littérature pour les deux problèmes fondamentaux étudiés, le problème de plus court chemin (Shortest path problem - SPP) et le VRP et leurs variantes développées au cours des années. Le Chapitre 2 introduit une nouvelle variante du VRP, le TD-SPVRP. Le Chapitre 3 présente les différentes techniques développées pour réduire la taille du réseau en manipulant les informations spatiales du réseau routier. L'impact de ces réductions est évalué et analysé sur des instances réelles en utilisant plusieurs heuristiques. Le Chapitre 4 traite l'impact de l'agrégation des données temporelle et des modèles d'évaluation des temps de parcours. Le dernier chapitre constitue une conclusion et ouvre des perspectives de recherche relatives à nos travaux.The vehicle routing problem (VRP), introduced more than 60 years ago, is at the core of transportation systems. With decades of development, the VRP is one of the most studied problems in the literature, with a very rich set of variants. Yet, primarily due to the lack of data, two critical assumptions make the VRP fail to adapt effectively to traffic and congestion. The first assumption considers that the travel speed is constant over time ; the second, that each pair of customers is connected by an arc, ignoring the underlying street network. Traffic congestion is one of the biggest challenges in transportation systems. As traffic directly affects transportation activities, the whole supply chain needs to adjust to this factor. The continuous growth of freight in recent years worsens the situation, and a renewed focus on mobility, environment, and city logistics has shed light on these issues. Recently, advances in communications and real-time data acquisition technologies have made it possible to collect vehicle data such as their location, acceleration, driving speed, deceleration, etc. With the availability of this data, one can question the way we define, model, and solve transportation problems. This allows us to overcome the two issues indicated before and integrate congestion information and the whole underlying street network. We start by considering the whole underlying street network, which means we have customer nodes and intermediate nodes that constitute the street network. Then, we model the travel time of each street during the day. By dividing the day into small intervals, up to a precision of a second, we consider precise traffic information. This results in a new problem called the time-dependent shortest path vehicle routing problem (TD-SPVRP), in which we combine the time-dependent shortest path problem (TD-SPP) and the time-dependent VRP (TD-VRP), creating a more general and very challenging problem. The TD-SPVRP is closer to what can be found in real-world conditions, and it constitutes the topic of Chapter 2, where we formulate it as a mixed-integer linear programming model and design a fast and efficient heuristic algorithm to solve this problem. We test it on instances generated from actual traffic data from the road network in Québec City, Canada. Results show that the heuristic provides high-quality solutions with an average gap of only 5.66%, while the mathematical model fails to find a solution for any real instance. To solve the challenging problem, we emphasize the importance of a high-performance implementation to improve the speed and the execution time of the algorithms. Still, the problem is huge especially when we work on a large area of the underlying street network alongside very precise traffic data. To this end, we use different techniques to optimize the computational effort to solve the problem while assessing the impact on the precision to avoid the loss of valuable information. Two types of data aggregation are developed, covering two different levels of information. First, we manipulated the structure of the network by reducing its size, and second by controlling the time aggregation level to generate the traffic data, thus the data used to determine the speed of a vehicle at any time. For the network structure, we used different reduction techniques of the road graph to reduce its size. We studied the value and the trade-off of spatial information. Solutions generated using the reduced graph are analyzed in Chapter 3 to evaluate the quality and the loss of information from the reduction. We show that the transformation of the TD-SPVRP into an equivalent TD-VRP results in a large graph that requires significant preprocessing time, which impacts the solution quality. Our development shows that solving the TD-SPVRP is about 40 times faster than solving the related TD-VRP. Keeping a high level of precision and successfully reducing the size of the graph is possible. In particular, we develop two reduction procedures, node reduction and parallel arc reduction. Both techniques reduce the size of the graph, with different results. While the node reduction leads to improved reduction in the gap of 1.11%, the parallel arc reduction gives a gap of 2.57% indicating a distortion in the reduced graph. We analyzed the compromises regarding the traffic information, between a massive amount of very precise data or a smaller volume of aggregated data with some potential information loss. This is done while analyzing the precision of the aggregated data under different travel time models, and these developments appear in Chapter 4. Our analysis indicates that a full coverage of the street network at any time of the day is required to achieve a high level of coverage. Using high aggregation will result in a smaller problem with better data coverage but at the cost of a loss of information. We analyzed two travel time estimation models, the link travel model (LTM) and the flow speed model (FSM). They both shared the same performance when working with large intervals of time (120, 300, and 600 seconds), thus a higher level of aggregation, with an absolute average gap of 5.5% to the observed route travel time. With short periods (1, 10, 30, and 60 seconds), FSM performs better than LTM. For 1 second interval, FSM gives an average absolute gap of 6.70%, while LTM provides a gap of 11.17%. This thesis is structured as follows. After a general introduction in which we present the conceptual framework of the thesis and its organization, Chapter 1 presents the literature review for the two main problems of our development, the shortest path problem (SPP) and the VRP, and their time-dependent variants developed over the years. Chapter 2 introduces a new VRP variant, the TD-SPVRP. Chapter 3 presents the different techniques developed to reduce the size of the network by manipulating spatial information of the road network. The impact of these reductions is evaluated and analyzed on real data instances using multiple heuristics. Chapter 4 covers the impact of time aggregation data and travel time models when computing travel times on the precision of their estimations against observed travel times. The conclusion follows in the last chapter and presents some research perspectives for our works

Electric vehicle routing, arc routing, and team orienteering problems in sustainable transportation

[EN] The increasing use of electric vehicles in road and air transportation, especially in last-mile delivery and city mobility, raises new operational challenges due to the limited capacity of electric batteries. These limitations impose additional driving range constraints when optimizing the distribution and mobility plans. During the last years, several researchers from the Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence, and Operations Research communities have been developing optimization, simulation, and machine learning approaches that aim at generating efficient and sustainable routing plans for hybrid fleets, including both electric and internal combustion engine vehicles. After contextualizing the relevance of electric vehicles in promoting sustainable transportation practices, this paper reviews the existing work in the field of electric vehicle routing problems. In particular, we focus on articles related to the well-known vehicle routing, arc routing, and team orienteering problems. The review is followed by numerical examples that illustrate the gains that can be obtained by employing optimization methods in the aforementioned field. Finally, several research opportunities are highlighted.This work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities (PID2019-111100RB-C21-C22/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, RED2018-102642-T), the SEPIE Erasmus+Program (2019-I-ES01-KA103-062602), and the IoF2020-H2020 (731884) project.Do C. Martins, L.; Tordecilla, RD.; Castaneda, J.; Juan-Pérez, ÁA.; Faulin, J. (2021). Electric vehicle routing, arc routing, and team orienteering problems in sustainable transportation. Energies. 14(16):1-30. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14165131130141