Development of Material Characterization Techniques using Novel Nanoindentation Approaches on Hard and Soft Materials used in MEMS

Investigating and modeling the mechanical properties of materials is important for many applications. The most common technique used for mechanical characterization of materials is called nanoindentation. The currently available tools utilized in order to perform nanoindentation have their limitations in terms of sensitivities in force and displacement for a broad range of material properties. When it comes to investigation of soft materials, these limitations might be more detrimental. In this dissertation work, novel nanoindentation techniques have been developed with a multi-probe scanning force microscopy (SPM) system in order to ease the major problems encountered with standard Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) or nanoindentation systems. Tuning forks are used as probes during nanoindentation. By using the newly developed nanoindentation techniques for quasi-static nanoindentation experiments, the force information is extracted through the displacement of the indenter probe measured by a second probe with ultraresolution. For dynamic nanoindentation, frequency modulation techniques have been used to extract force information from a single indenter tuningfork probe. Thanks to the high quality of resonance (Q factor) of tuning fork probes, force measurements can be performed with an ultra high resolution. The accurate measurements of material properties on soft materials is used in characterization of microfabricated pillar sensors which can be used in measuring nN level of cell traction forces in a biomedical application. The techniques developed in this research also enable the system as an ultra-sensitive force sensor to apply nN scale lateral and vertical loads on microfabricated structures or biological specimens

Biosensors for studies on adhesion-mediated cellular responses to their microenvironment

Cells interact with their microenvironment by constantly sensing mechanical and chemical cues converting them into biochemical signals. These processes allow cells to respond and adapt to changes in their environment, and are crucial for most cellular functions. Understanding the mechanism underlying this complex interplay at the cell-matrix interface is of fundamental value to decipher key biochemical and mechanical factors regulating cell fate. The combination of material science and surface chemistry aided in the creation of controllable environments to study cell mechanosensing and mechanotransduction. Biologically inspired materials tailored with specific bioactive molecules, desired physical properties and tunable topography have emerged as suitable tools to study cell behavior. Among these materials, synthetic cell interfaces with built-in sensing capabilities are highly advantageous to measure biophysical and biochemical interaction between cells and their environment. In this review, we discuss the design of micro and nanostructured biomaterials engineered not only to mimic the structure, properties, and function of the cellular microenvironment, but also to obtain quantitative information on how cells sense and probe specific adhesive cues from the extracellular domain. This type of responsive biointerfaces provides a readout of mechanics, biochemistry, and electrical activity in real time allowing observation of cellular processes with molecular specificity. Specifically designed sensors based on advanced optical and electrochemical readout are discussed. We further provide an insight into the emerging role of multifunctional micro and nanosensors to control and monitor cell functions by means of material design.Fil: Saffioti, Nicolas Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de San Martin. Instituto de Nanosistemas; ArgentinaFil: Cavalcanti Adam, Elisabetta Ada. Max Planck Institute for Medical Research. Department Of Cellular Biophysics; AlemaniaFil: Pallarola, Diego Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de San Martin. Instituto de Nanosistemas; Argentin

Biomechanical Characterization at the Cell Scale: Present and Prospects

The rapidly growing field of mechanobiology demands for robust and reproducible characterization of cell mechanical properties. Recent achievements in understanding the mechanical regulation of cell fate largely rely on technological platforms capable of probing the mechanical response of living cells and their physico–chemical interaction with the microenvironment. Besides the established family of atomic force microscopy (AFM) based methods, other approaches include optical, magnetic, and acoustic tweezers, as well as sensing substrates that take advantage of biomaterials chemistry and microfabrication techniques. In this review, we introduce the available methods with an emphasis on the most recent advances, and we discuss the challenges associated with their implementation

Contribution des propriétés du micro-environnement sur l'adhésion cellulaire

It has grown a great interest among biophysicists that adherent cell senses substrate stiffness and geometry by the process of mechanotransduction. Cells exert force on the extra cellular matrix on which it is subjected to adhere by active mechanism, which involves biomechanical regulatory feedback loop. It is still unclear whether biomechanical,biochemical or geometrical stimuli dominates invivo. Underlying mechanism behind the way cell senses, redistributes and transmits force still needs to elucidate. In the first part we show how geometrical modulation influences traction force and tension distribution in the actin cytoskeleton, and also localization of focal adhesion at single cell level by combining use of Micropatterning and Traction force microscopy technique. We measure cell traction force seeded on different micropattened shapes(like U,arrow and H) coated with protein on 2D soft polyacrilamide gel embedded with nano beads. We show that geometrical cue redistributes traction force locally while projected area designed for a single cell is conserved. we compare cell traction force developed when cells are on a continuous 2D circular array pattern with discrete 3D micropillar array of same stiffness. We also have investigated how forces are varied with rigidity modulation of the extra cellular matrix in both these two cases. A quantitative measurement has been done on the spatially localized adhesion proteins on the circular dots and also actin re-organization. In the sencod part to achieve more systematic understanding of force distribution we have consider more on force localization and orientation on different patterned geometry( V, T, Tripod, Plus). We correlate force distribution with stress fiber and focal adhesion localization. Finally we look into centrosome distribution in correlation with force and other internal organization. An alternate approach has been made towards the development of thermoresponsive micropattern, made of poly(N-isopropyla crylamide) brushes, grafted at high surface density. Surface functionalization and cell attachment on the surface are bescribed. We discuss temperature-dependent swelling properties of PNIPAM and the polymerbrush as a microactuator which induces cell detachment. We also have looked into stress fiber distribution when cell is cultured on different thermoresponsive pattern geometries.Les cellules exerçert des forces sur la matrice extra cellulaire sur laquelle elles adhérent impliquant une boulle de régulation biomécanique. Cependant les sous-jacents de par lesquelles les cellules sentent et transmettent les forces restent encore m^echaniemes à elucider. Dans la premiére partie nous allons comment le modulations géométrique les forces de tractions et la distributions des tensions dans le cytosquelette d'actine ainsi que localisation des adhésions focales sur une cellule unique en combinant l'utilisation de la technique de micropatterning et de microscopie à traction de force. Nous avons mesuré la force de traction cellulaire sur différentes formes géométriques mocropatterns (comme un U, flieche ou H) recouvert de protéines sur des gels mous de polyacrilamide 2D dans lequl sont intégrés des nanobilles fluorescenes. Nous avons montré que la géométrie influencait la distribution des forces de tractions localement tandis que l'aire projetée des differentes formes restait conservée (pour une celule). Puis nous avons comparé la force de traction cellulaire développée quand les cellules sont sur des motif contirees circulaire 2D avec des motifs discrets en forme de micropiliers 3D de la me^me rigidité . Nous avons aussi étudie comment les forces varies en fonction de la rigidité de la matrice extracellulaire dans les deux cas précédents une mesure quantitative a été faite sur la localisation spatiale des protéines d'adhésion sur les formes circulaires et aussi sur l'organisation de l'actine. Afin d'ovoir une compréhension systématique de la distribution des forces nous nous sommes concentré sur la localisation et l'orientation des forces sur différentes géométrics de motifs (V, T, Tripod et plus). Nous avons corrélé la distribution avec celle des dibers de stesses et la localisation des adhésions focales. Ensuite nous nous sommes intéressés la distribution des centrosome en corrélation avec la forces et l'organisation d'autres eléments internes. Nous avons égolement essayé de prédire la force de traction en utilisant un modele théorique. Pour finir, nous avons developpé une novelle méthode de micropatterning fabriqué à partir de brosses de polymeres de PNIPAM qui sont thermosensibles. La fonctionalisation de surface et l'adhésion des cellules sur la surface sont aussi décrites. Nous discutons également de la dépendance en température des propriétés du PNIPAm et de l' utilisation desbrosses de polymeres comme actuateur pour induire les détachments des cellules. Nous avons aussi regardé la distribution des fibres de stress quand la cellule est cultivée sur différent types de motif thermosensible

모세관 현상 기반의 패터닝 기법을 활용한 고효율 삼차원 면역세포 항암효능 평가 플랫폼

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 기계공학부, 2020. 8. 전누리.Organs-on-chips have been developed for recapitulating human organ functions in in vitro as microfabrication techniques meet biology since the early 2000s. Specifically, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) based microfluidic devices enabled to mimic organ functions by providing spatially compartmented cell patterning for culturing cells with in vivo like layout. The selective cell patterning enabled 3D cell culture and spatiotemporal analysis which were challenging to conduct with conventional cell culturewares such as petri-dishes, flasks, and well-plates. However, traditional organs-on-chips have limitations in salability, experimental throughput, and absence of standard due to their closed channel designs based on PDMS. Here, we introduce two capillarity guided patterning (CGP) methods by integrating microstructures with conventional cell culturewares. First, we fabricated micropillar arrays on open polystyrene (PS) surfaces and the micropillars can capture liquids swept over the surface. Using the devices, we demonstrated 3D culture applications, single cell capturing and retrieval and multiple cell co-culture. Second, we integrated rail-structures with microplate. Beneath a rail-structure, hydrogel precursors can selectively remain according to meniscus dynamics when the pre-loaded precursors are aspirated. These two CGP methods can be produced with injection molding and provide enhanced experimental throughput. Using the rail-based CGP method, we developed a 3D cytotoxicity assay for cancer immunotherapy based on an injection molded plastic culture (CACI-IMPACT) device to assess killing abilities of cytotoxic lymphocytes in 3D microenvironment through a spatiotemporal analysis of the lymphocytes and cancer cells embedded in 3D extra cellular matrix (ECM). Owing to the aspiration-mediated patterning, hydrogel precursors can be patterned in 12 wells within 30 s. For functional evaluation of the cytotoxic lymphocytes engineered for cancer immunotherapy, HeLa cells encapsulated by collagen matrix were patterned beneath low rails and NK-92 cells were loaded into the channel formed by the collagen matrix. We observed infiltration, migration and killing activity of NK-92 cells against HeLa cells in collagen matrix. Through image-based analysis, we found ECM significantly influences migration and cytotoxicity of lymphocytes. Hence, the CACI-IMPACT platform has the potential to be used for pre-clinical evaluation of ex vivo engineered cytotoxic lymphocytes for cancer immunotherapy against solid tumors, and the CGP methods are expected to accelerate the commercialization of organs-on-chips.장기모사칩은 2000년대 초부터 마이크로 공정 기술이 생물학적 연구에 활용됨에 따라 인간 장기 기능을 모사하기 위해 개발되었다. 구체적으로, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 기반 미세유체 장치는 공간적으로 구분된 세포 패터닝을 가능케 함으로써 생체와 유사한 구조로 세포를 배양할 수 있게 해주었다. 이러한 세포 패터닝은 페트리 디쉬, 플라스크, 혹은 웰플레이트와 같은 기존의 세포 배양 도구에서는 수행하기 어려운 삼차원 세포 배양과 그 안에서의 시공간적 분석을 가능하게 하였다. 하지만, 종래의 장기모사칩은 PDMS에 기반한 닫힌 형태의 채널 설계로 인해 낮은 생산성, 낮은 실험 효율, 낮은 장비 호환성을 갖는다. 따라서, 본 연구는 대중적인 세포 배양 장치들에 마이크로 구조물을 통합한 두가지 모세관 현상 기반의 패터닝 방법을 제시한다. 첫번째 방법은 페트리 디쉬나 polystyrene (PS) 필름과 같이 개방된 PS 표면에 마이크로 기둥 어레이를 제작하여 그 위에서 액체가 쓸려 지나갈 때 기둥 구조물들 사이에 액체를 포획하는 방식이다. 마이크로 기둥 어레이의 배치에 따라 나노리터부터 마이크로리터에 이르는 액체를 빠르게 패터닝할 수 있게 한다. 이러한 기둥 구조를 활용하면 다양한 세포의 배치 및 배양이 가능하여, 본 연구에서는 삼차원 환경에서의 단일세포 배양과 다세포 공배양 플랫폼으로의 활용 가능성을 제시하였다. 두번째 방법은 마이크로 레일 형태의 마이크로구조물을 표준화된 마이크로 플레이트의 웰과 통합하여 고효율 삼차원 배양 플랫폼을 제시한다. 레일 구조의 아래에 주입된 액체가 빨아들여질 때 구조물에 의해 형성된 액체-기체 계면들의 순차적 이동을 활용하여 특정 레일의 아래에만 액체를 남기는 기술을 개발하였다. 이 두가지 모세관 현상 기반 패터닝 방법을 위한 장치들은 사출성형으로 대량생산이 가능하고 우수한 실험 효율을 갖는다. 이 중 레일 구조를 활용한 흡인 기반의 패터닝 방법을 이용하여 면역세포치료제의 성능 평가를 위한 사출 성형된 플라스틱 어레이 배양 장치 (CACI-IMPACT)를 개발하였다. 흡인 기반 패터닝 덕분에 20 μl 파이펫으로 빨아들인 하이드로젤 용액을 30 초 이내에 12개의 웰에 패터닝 할 수 있었다. 면역세포치료제의 기능적 평가를 위해, 콜라겐 젤에 포함된 HeLa 세포를 패터닝하고 NK-92 세포의 콜라겐 매트릭스 내부로의 침투, 매트릭스 내부에서의 이동 및 암세포 살해 활동을 관찰하였다. 이를 통해 세포외기질이 세포 독성 림프구의 이동 및 세포 독성에 상당히 영향을 미친다는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. 따라서, 암세포와 세포 독성 림프구의 고효율 삼차원 공동 배양을 가능하게 하는 본 플랫폼은 고형 종양에 대한 면역 치료를 위해 개발된 세포 독성 림프구의 전임상 평가에 사용될 가능성이 있으며, 본 연구에서 개발 및 사용된 모세관 현상 기반 패터닝 기술들은 장기모사칩의 상용화를 가속화시킬 것으로 기대한다.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1. History of organs-on-chips 1 1.2. Challenges in current organs-on-chips 4 1.3. Models for cancer immunotherapy 7 1.4. Purpose of research 8 Chapter 2. Microstructure-guided multi-scale liquid patterning on open surface 11 2.1. Introduction 11 2.2. Materials and Methods 13 2.2.1. Fabrication of the microstructured PS surface 13 2.2.2. Single cell isolation and retrieval of single colony 16 2.2.3. In vitro vasculogenesis 17 2.2.4. Visualization of the in vitro blood vessel 19 2.3. Results and discussion 18 2.3.1. Liquid patterning process 18 2.3.2. Comparison of microliquid trapping with a micropillar array and microwells 30 2.3.3. Arrangement of micropillars for controlling the volume and shape of patterned liquids 33 2.3.4. Single cell culture & recovery platform 37 2.3.5. Sequential patterning for co-culture in a 3D microenvironment 42 2.4. Conclusions 46 Chapter 3. Aspiration-mediated microliquid patterning using rail-based open microfluidics 47 3.1. Introduction 47 3.2 Materials and Methods 50 3.2.1. Fabrication of open microfluidic devices 50 3.2.2. Cell culture 50 3.2.3. Hydrogel micropatterning 51 3.2.4. Image analysis 52 3.3. Results 53 3.3.1. Microstructures for aspiration-mediated patterning 53 3.3.2. Theoretical analysis of microchannel formation 56 3.3.3. Formation of multiple discrete microchannels 63 3.3.4. An application for screening vasculogenic capacities 70 3.4. Conclusions 75 Chapter 4. High-throughput microfluidic 3D cytotoxicity assay for cancer immunotherapy 77 4.1. Introduction 77 4.2. Materials and Methods 81 4.2.1. Cell culture 81 4.2.2. Fluorescent labeling of live and dead cells 81 4.2.3. 3D cytotoxicity assay using gel patterned device 82 4.2.4. Image analysis 83 4.2.5. 2D cytotoxicity assay 84 4.3. Results 84 4.3.1. Design and fabrication of devices 84 4.3.2. Cytotoxicity assay in 3D ECM environment 89 4.3.3. 3D ECM reduce cytotoxicity 94 4.3.4. Dense ECM impede migration of CLs 98 4.4. Conclusions 104 Chapter 5. Concluding Remarks 110 Bibliography 113 Abstract in Korean 124Docto

Integrating mechanical sensor readouts into organ-on-a-chip platforms

Organs-on-a-chip have emerged as next-generation tissue engineered models to accurately capture realistic human tissue behaviour, thereby addressing many of the challenges associated with using animal models in research. Mechanical features of the culture environment have emerged as being critically important in designing organs-on-a-chip, as they play important roles in both stimulating realistic tissue formation and function, as well as capturing integrative elements of homeostasis, tissue function, and tissue degeneration in response to external insult and injury. Despite the demonstrated impact of incorporating mechanical cues in these models, strategies to measure these mechanical tissue features in microfluidically-compatible formats directly on-chip are relatively limited. In this review, we first describe general microfluidically-compatible Organs-on-a-chip sensing strategies, and categorize these advances based on the specific advantages of incorporating them on-chip. We then consider foundational and recent advances in mechanical analysis techniques spanning cellular to tissue length scales; and discuss their integration into Organs-on-a-chips for more effective drug screening, disease modeling, and characterization of biological dynamics

CELL GEOMETRIC CONSTRAINTS REGULATE NUCLEAR AND CHROMATIN PLASTICITY VIA ACTOMYOSIN CONTRACTILITY

Ph.DPH.D. IN MECHANOBIOLOGY (FOS

Engineering microscale topographies to control the cell-substrate interface

a b s t r a c t Cells in their in vivo microenvironment constantly encounter and respond to a multitude of signals. While the role of biochemical signals has long been appreciated, the importance of biophysical signals has only recently been investigated. Biophysical cues are presented in different forms including topography and mechanical stiffness imparted by the extracellular matrix and adjoining cells. Microfabrication technologies have allowed for the generation of biomaterials with microscale topographies to study the effect of biophysical cues on cellular function at the cellesubstrate interface. Topographies of different geometries and with varying microscale dimensions have been used to better understand cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation at the cellular and sub-cellular scales. Furthermore, quantification of cellgenerated forces has been illustrated with micropillar topographies to shed light on the process of mechanotransduction. In this review, we highlight recent advances made in these areas and how they have been utilized for neural, cardiac, and musculoskeletal tissue engineering application

ROLE OF ACTIN CYTOSKELETON IN MECHANOTRANSDUCTION

Ph.DPH.D. IN MECHANOBIOLOGY (NGS

IST Austria Thesis

Directed cell migration is a hallmark feature, present in almost all multi-cellular organisms. Despite its importance, basic questions regarding force transduction or directional sensing are still heavily investigated. Directed migration of cells guided by immobilized guidance cues - haptotaxis - occurs in key-processes, such as embryonic development and immunity (Middleton et al., 1997; Nguyen et al., 2000; Thiery, 1984; Weber et al., 2013). Immobilized guidance cues comprise adhesive ligands, such as collagen and fibronectin (Barczyk et al., 2009), or chemokines - the main guidance cues for migratory leukocytes (Middleton et al., 1997; Weber et al., 2013). While adhesive ligands serve as attachment sites guiding cell migration (Carter, 1965), chemokines instruct haptotactic migration by inducing adhesion to adhesive ligands and directional guidance (Rot and Andrian, 2004; Schumann et al., 2010). Quantitative analysis of the cellular response to immobilized guidance cues requires in vitro assays that foster cell migration, offer accurate control of the immobilized cues on a subcellular scale and in the ideal case closely reproduce in vivo conditions. The exploration of haptotactic cell migration through design and employment of such assays represents the main focus of this work. Dendritic cells (DCs) are leukocytes, which after encountering danger signals such as pathogens in peripheral organs instruct naïve T-cells and consequently the adaptive immune response in the lymph node (Mellman and Steinman, 2001). To reach the lymph node from the periphery, DCs follow haptotactic gradients of the chemokine CCL21 towards lymphatic vessels (Weber et al., 2013). Questions about how DCs interpret haptotactic CCL21 gradients have not yet been addressed. The main reason for this is the lack of an assay that offers diverse haptotactic environments, hence allowing the study of DC migration as a response to different signals of immobilized guidance cue. In this work, we developed an in vitro assay that enables us to quantitatively assess DC haptotaxis, by combining precisely controllable chemokine photo-patterning with physically confining migration conditions. With this tool at hand, we studied the influence of CCL21 gradient properties and concentration on DC haptotaxis. We found that haptotactic gradient sensing depends on the absolute CCL21 concentration in combination with the local steepness of the gradient. Our analysis suggests that the directionality of migrating DCs is governed by the signal-to-noise ratio of CCL21 binding to its receptor CCR7. Moreover, the haptotactic CCL21 gradient formed in vivo provides an optimal shape for DCs to recognize haptotactic guidance cue. By reconstitution of the CCL21 gradient in vitro we were also able to study the influence of CCR7 signal termination on DC haptotaxis. To this end, we used DCs lacking the G-protein coupled receptor kinase GRK6, which is responsible for CCL21 induced CCR7 receptor phosphorylation and desensitization (Zidar et al., 2009). We found that CCR7 desensitization by GRK6 is crucial for maintenance of haptotactic CCL21 gradient sensing in vitro and confirm those observations in vivo. In the context of the organism, immobilized haptotactic guidance cues often coincide and compete with soluble chemotactic guidance cues. During wound healing, fibroblasts are exposed and influenced by adhesive cues and soluble factors at the same time (Wu et al., 2012; Wynn, 2008). Similarly, migrating DCs are exposed to both, soluble chemokines (CCL19 and truncated CCL21) inducing chemotactic behavior as well as the immobilized CCL21. To quantitatively assess these complex coinciding immobilized and soluble guidance cues, we implemented our chemokine photo-patterning technique in a microfluidic system allowing for chemotactic gradient generation. To validate the assay, we observed DC migration in competing CCL19/CCL21 environments. Adhesiveness guided haptotaxis has been studied intensively over the last century. However, quantitative studies leading to conceptual models are largely missing, again due to the lack of a precisely controllable in vitro assay. A requirement for such an in vitro assay is that it must prevent any uncontrolled cell adhesion. This can be accomplished by stable passivation of the surface. In addition, controlled adhesion must be sustainable, quantifiable and dose dependent in order to create homogenous gradients. Therefore, we developed a novel covalent photo-patterning technique satisfying all these needs. In combination with a sustainable poly-vinyl alcohol (PVA) surface coating we were able to generate gradients of adhesive cue to direct cell migration. This approach allowed us to characterize the haptotactic migratory behavior of zebrafish keratocytes in vitro. Furthermore, defined patterns of adhesive cue allowed us to control for cell shape and growth on a subcellular scale