66 research outputs found

    Measures vs. analytic evaluation of response time of Networked Automation Systems

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    Communication and Computation in Buildings: A Short Introduction and Overview

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    A Real-time Network for a Solid-State Transformer

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    Industriella realtidsethernet för maskinautomation

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    During the last two decades, Ethernet has become the de facto standard in office level networks. There are several motivations for using Ethernet also in control networks, including the abundance of low cost components, the high data transfer rates and the possibility of vertical integration with other networks of the organization. The first in­dustrial implementation of Ethernet was for communication between different devices on the controller level. Modern real-time industrial Ethernet technologies, like the ones studied in this thesis, have brought Ethernet also down to the field level. The thesis is divided into two sections. The first section contains presentations of the seven most used real-time industrial Ethernet technologies. The second section contains a more thorough study of EtherCAT, the one of the seven technologies that promise the best real-time performance. The main goals are to provide a review of the different tech­nologies available and to study the suitability of EtherCAT in the control networks of machine automation systems. In the first section, different real-time industrial Ethernet technologies are divided into three groups based upon how much they differ from standard office Ethernet. It is found that the technologies built entirely upon standard office Ethernet do in them­selves not promise any real-time capabilities. Their biggest weakness is the slow pro­cessing of the software communication protocol stack. The technologies that use stan­dard Ethernet hardware but dedicated software are good for soft real-time applications, but the lack of accurate synchronization between the devices makes them unsuitable for applications demanding hard real-time behavior. The technologies that use both special hardware and software offer superior real-time performance but are not as open to inte­gration with standard office Ethernet networks as the other solutions. The second section of the study contains three parts. In the first of them, a small test system is built to examine the suitability of EtherCAT for the closed loop control of a variable alternate current (AC) drive. In the second part, the availability of open source initiatives concerning EtherCAT is explored. In the third part, the possibility for master device redundancy in EtherCAT is investigated. The study indicates that EtherCAT achieves the short communication cycle times and accurate synchronization promised. Short cycle times are indeed needed as direct communication between slave devices is not supported in EtherCAT and thus the efficiency of the communication is almost totally dependent on the cycle time. EtherCAT networks are relatively easy to configure and maintain as there are comprehensive software suites available, both as commercial pro­grams and open source initiatives and for a variety of different operating systems. The least developed feature of EtherCAT proved to be the support for master device redun­dancy. Solutions for master redundancy are available, but more as concepts than as ready-to-use features. /Kir10Under de senaste tvĂ„ decennierna har Ethernet blivit nĂ„got av en de facto standard för nĂ€tverk i kontorsmiljö. Det finns flera motiv för att anvĂ€nda Ethernet Ă€ven i kontroll­nĂ€tverk, bland andra god tillgĂ„ng av billiga komponenter, hög dataöverföringshastighet och möjligheter för vertikal integration med nĂ€tverk pĂ„ andra nivĂ„er av organisationen. Den första industriella tillĂ€mpningen av Ethernet var för kommunikation mellan olika kontrollenheter. Moderna realtidslösningar för industriella Ethernet-nĂ€tverk har fört Ethernet ocksĂ„ ner till fĂ€ltnivĂ„. Det hĂ€r diplomarbetet Ă€r uppdelat i tvĂ„ delar. Den första delen innehĂ„ller presen­tationer av de sju mest anvĂ€nda realtidslösningarna för industriella Ethernet-nĂ€tverk. Den andra delen innehĂ„ller en mer djupgĂ„ende studie av EtherCAT, den av de sju lösningarna som utlovar bĂ€st realtidsprestanda. De mest centrala mĂ„len Ă€r att ge en över­syn av de olika realtidslösningarna som finns tillgĂ€ngliga för industriella Ethernet-nĂ€tverk samt att undersöka hur lĂ€mpligt EtherCAT Ă€r som kontrollnĂ€tverk för maskin­automation. Inledningsvis delas de olika lösningarna in i tre grupper pĂ„ bas av hur mycket de skiljer sig frĂ„n vanliga kontorsnĂ€tverk. Det visar sig att de lösningar som helt bygger pĂ„ samma teknik som anvĂ€nds i kontorsnĂ€tverk i sig sjĂ€lva inte kan utlova nĂ„gon som helst realtidskapacitet. Deras största svaghet Ă€r den resurskrĂ€vande behandlingen av de kommunikationsprotokoll som anvĂ€nds i kontorsnĂ€tverk. Det Ă€r dock möjligt att konstruera lösningar med relativt bra realtidsbeteende utgĂ„ende frĂ„n de hĂ€r lösningarna bara man vĂ€ljer rĂ€tt Ethernet-komponenter och tillrĂ€ckligt kraftfulla mikroprocessorer i nĂ€tverksstationerna. De lösningar som anvĂ€nder vanlig Ethernet-maskinvara men egen programvara Ă€r bra för mjuka realtidssystem, men de brister i synkroniseringen mellan enheterna och Ă€r sĂ„lunda inte tillrĂ€ckligt deterministiska för hĂ„rda realtidssystem. De lösningar som anvĂ€nder bĂ„de egen hĂ„rdvara och egen mjukvara erbjuder överlĂ€gsen realtidsprestanda som öppnar nya möjligheter för effektivare reglering av olika system. Å andra sidan Ă€r de hĂ€r lösningarna inte lika öppna för integration med vanliga kontorsnĂ€tverk som de lösningar som har mer likheter med vanliga kontorsnĂ€tverk. Den andra delen av studien inriktar sig pĂ„ EtherCAT. EtherCAT Ă€r ett sĂ„ kallat master/slave-nĂ€tverk, det vill sĂ€ga att en av stationerna i nĂ€tverket styr kommuni­kationen och de andra i allmĂ€nhet inte sjĂ€lva kan initiera nĂ„gon form av kommuni­kation. Den mest centrala funktionsprincipen för EtherCAT Ă€r att de olika slav-stationerna logiskt Ă€r ordnade i en kedja och att alla meddelanden passerar genom alla slav-stationer och blir ocksĂ„ lĂ€sta och skrivna till av flera slav-stationer. I relativt smĂ„ nĂ€tverk betyder det hĂ€r att det bara skickas ett meddelande per kommunikationscykel. Meddelandena hanteras av speciell hĂ„rdvara i slav-stationerna och detta sker sĂ„ snabbt att meddelandena bara blir fördröjda med brĂ„kdelen av en mikrosekund. Master-stationen, dĂ€remot, Ă€r oftast konstruerad utan speciell hĂ„rdvara och bestĂ„r vanligen av en PC med realtidsoperativsystem och speciell mjukvara, ett sĂ„ kallad EtherCAT master-program. Det att mastern bestĂ„r av standard Ethernet hĂ„rdvara betyder att den har relativt dĂ„lig timing-kapacitet. DĂ€rför Ă€r de olika slav-enheterna i ett EtherCAT nĂ€tverk i stĂ€llet vanligen synkroniserade efter den första slav-enheten i kedjan. En synkroniseringsexakthet pĂ„ mycket bĂ€ttre Ă€n en mikrosekund utlovas och den kan anvĂ€ndas bĂ„de till att Ă„stadkomma reaktioner pĂ„ en exakt given tidpunkt och exakta tidsangivelser för nĂ€r ett processvĂ€rde Ă€r uppmĂ€tt. Studien av EtherCAT Ă€r indelad i tre avsnitt. I det första av dem byggs ett litet testsystem för att undersöka hur lĂ€mpligt EtherCAT Ă€r som kontrollnĂ€tverk för Ă„terkopplad styrning av en frekvensomriktare. Den viktigaste enskilda egenskapen som krĂ€vs av ett kommunikationsnĂ€tverk för den hĂ€r tillĂ€mpningen Ă€r att frekvensomriktaren ofta och snabbt fĂ„r korrekt information om drivaxelns position. Det Ă€r ocksĂ„ viktigt att positionsangivelserna Ă€r ackompanjerade av exakt information om nĂ€r de Ă€r uppmĂ€tta. Studien visar att det Ă€r möjligt att uppnĂ„ bĂ„da de hĂ€r egenskaperna med hjĂ€lp av EtherCAT. Det att direkt kommunikation mellan slav-stationerna i ett EtherCAT-nĂ€tverk inte understöds medför visserligen att överföringen av positions­datan tar tvĂ„ kommunikationscykler i ansprĂ„k, men eftersom det Ă€r möjligt att uppnĂ„ cykel­tider sĂ„ korta som 133 ”s torde prestandan i alla fall rĂ€cka för de flesta system. Det hĂ€r medför dock att cykeltiderna mĂ„ste hĂ„llas lĂ„ga Ă€ven om systemet i övrigt inte skulle krĂ€va det. I det andra avsnittet undersöks tillgĂ„ngen pĂ„ öppen kĂ€llkodsbaserad programvara för EtherCAT. Det krĂ€vs ingen licens för att utveckla EtherCAT master-programvara, sĂ„ det finns en mĂ€ngd olika program för flera olika operativsystem pĂ„ marknaden. Ett par av dem Ă€r baserade pĂ„ öppen kĂ€llkod. Ett av de mest intressanta Ă€r EtherLAB frĂ„n Ingenieurgemeinschaft IgH. Det Ă€r i huvudsak utvecklat för Linux och innehĂ„ller förutom master-programvaran Ă€ven mjukvara för diagnostik och för att generera kontrollrutiner frĂ„n modeller skapade med Matlab/Simulink. I det hĂ€r avseendet Ă€r det till och med kraftfullare Ă€n den mest anvĂ€nda kommersiella programvaran för EtherCAT, TwinCAT frĂ„n Beckhoff Automation, som igen körs under MS Windows. I det tredje avsnittet granskas möjligheterna att duplicera den enhet som styr ett EtherCAT nĂ€tverk, sĂ„ kallad master-redundans. Studien presenterar en lösning utvecklad av Beckhoff Automation. Det visar sig att detta Ă€r en relativt sett dĂ„ligt utvecklad egenskap i EtherCAT. Den presenterade metoden medför till exempel att det tar nĂ€stan en hel sekund innan reserv-mastern tar över ifall det uppstĂ„r fel i den primĂ€ra, dessutom Ă€r funktionen för synkronisering av klockorna i slav-enheterna inte tillgĂ€nglig nĂ€r den hĂ€r metoden anvĂ€nds. Studien presenterar Ă€ven en idĂ© om en annan möjlig lösning för att Ă„stadkomma master-redundans i EtherCAT nĂ€tverk. Fördelen med den Ă€r att den skulle göra funktionen för att synkronisera klockorna i slav-enheterna möjlig Ă€ven fast systemet innehĂ„ller master-redundans. BĂ„da de presenterade lösningarna Ă€r mer koncept Ă€n funktioner fĂ€rdiga att anvĂ€nda, detta gĂ€ller i synnerhet den andra lösningen, som Ă€nnu bara Ă€r i idĂ©stadiet. Bristen pĂ„ vĂ€l fungerande lösningar för master-redundans gör att EtherCAT system bör konstrueras sĂ„ att korta stopp i kom­munikationen inte kan skada systemet i sig sjĂ€lv, intilliggande system eller mĂ€nniskor som Ă€r i kontakt med systemet

    Analytic Calculus of Response Time in Networked Automation Systems

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    Hierarchical Control of the ATLAS Experiment

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    Control systems at High Energy Physics (HEP) experiments are becoming increasingly complex mainly due to the size, complexity and data volume associated to the front-end instrumentation. In particular, this becomes visible for the ATLAS experiment at the LHC accelerator at CERN. ATLAS will be the largest particle detector ever built, result of an international collaboration of more than 150 institutes. The experiment is composed of 9 different specialized sub-detectors that perform different tasks and have different requirements for operation. The system in charge of the safe and coherent operation of the whole experiment is called Detector Control System (DCS). This thesis presents the integration of the ATLAS DCS into a global control tree following the natural segmentation of the experiment into sub-detectors and smaller sub-systems. The integration of the many different systems composing the DCS includes issues such as: back-end organization, process model identification, fault detection, synchronization with external systems, automation of processes and supervisory control. Distributed control modeling is applied to the widely distributed devices that coexist in ATLAS. Thus, control is achieved by means of many distributed, autonomous and co-operative entities that are hierarchically organized and follow a finite-state machine logic. The key to integration of these systems lies in the so called Finite State Machine tool (FSM), which is based on two main enabling technologies: a SCADA product, and the State Manager Interface (SMI++) toolkit. The SMI++ toolkit has been already used with success in two previous HEP experiments providing functionality such as: an object-oriented language, a finite-state machine logic, an interface to develop expert systems, and a platform-independent communication protocol. This functionality is then used at all levels of the experiment operation process, ranging from the overall supervision down to device integration, enabling the overall sequencing and automation of the experiment. Although the experience gained in the past is an important input for the design of the detector's control hierarchy, further requirements arose due to the complexity and size of ATLAS. In total, around 200.000 channels will be supervised by the DCS and the final control tree will be hundreds of times bigger than any of the antecedents. Thus, in order to apply a hierarchical control model to the ATLAS DCS, a common approach has been proposed to ensure homogeneity between the large-scale distributed software ensembles of sub-detectors. A standard architecture and a human interface have been defined with emphasis on the early detection, monitoring and diagnosis of faults based on a dynamic fault-data mechanism. This mechanism relies on two parallel communication paths that manage the faults while providing a clear description of the detector conditions. The DCS information is split and handled by different types of SMI++ objects; whilst one path of objects manages the operational mode of the system, the other is to handle eventual faults. The proposed strategy has been validated through many different tests with positive results in both functionality and performance. This strategy has been successfully implemented and constitutes the ATLAS standard to build the global control tree. During the operation of the experiment, the DCS, responsible for the detector operation, must be synchronized with the data acquisition system which is in charge of the physics data taking process. The interaction between both systems has so far been limited, but becomes increasingly important as the detector nears completion. A prototype implementation, ready to be used during the sub-detector integration, has achieved data reconciliation by mapping the different segments of the data acquisition system into the DCS control tree. The adopted solution allows the data acquisition control applications to command different DCS sections independently and prevents incorrect physics data taking caused by a failure in a detector part. Finally, the human-machine interface presents and controls the DCS data in the ATLAS control room. The main challenges faced during the design and development phases were: how to support the operator in controlling this large system, how to maintain integration across many displays, and how to provide an effective navigation. These issues have been solved by combining the functionalities provided by both, the SCADA product and the FSM tool. The control hierarchy provides an intuitive structure for the organization of many different displays that are needed for the visualization of the experiment conditions. Each node in the tree represents a workspace that contains the functional information associated with its abstraction level within the hierarchy. By means of an effective navigation, any workspace of the control tree is accessible by the operator or detector expert within a common human interface layout. The interface is modular and flexible enough to be accommodated to new operational scenarios, fulfil the necessities of the different kind of users and facilitate the maintenance during the long lifetime of the detector of up to 20 years. The interface is in use since several months, and the sub-detector's control hierarchies, together with their associated displays, are currently being integrated into the common human-machine interface

    LHC Machine

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    Plug-and-Participate for Limited Devices in the Field of Industrial Automation

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    Ausgangspunkt und gleichzeitig Motivation dieser Arbeit ist die heutige Marktsituation: Starke KundenbedĂŒrfnisse nach individuellen GĂŒtern stehen oftmals eher auf Massenproduktion ausgerichteten Planungs- und Automatisierungssystemen gegenĂŒber - die Befriedigung individueller KundenbedĂŒrfnisse setzt aber FlexibilitĂ€t und AnpassungsfĂ€higkeit voraus. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es daher, einen Beitrag zu leisten, der es Unternehmen ermöglichen soll, auf diese individuellen BedĂŒrfnisse flexibel reagieren zu können. Hierbei kann es im Rahmen der Dissertation natĂŒrlich nicht um eine Revolutionierung der gesamten Automatisierungs- und Planungslandschaft gehen; vielmehr ist die Lösung, die der Autor der Arbeit prĂ€sentiert, ein integraler Bestandteil eines Automatisierungskonzeptes, das im Rahmen des PABADIS Projektes entwickelt wurde: WĂ€hrend PABADIS das gesamte Spektrum von Planung und Maschineninfrastruktur zum Inhalt hat, bezieht sich der Kern dieser Arbeit weitestgehend auf den letztgenannten Punkt - Maschineninfrastruktur. Ziel war es, generische MaschinenfunktionalitĂ€t in einem Netzwerk anzubieten, durch das FertigungsauftrĂ€ge selbststĂ€ndig navigieren. Als Lösung prĂ€sentiert diese Dissertation ein Plug-and-Participate basiertes Konzept, welches beliebige Automatisierungsfunktionen in einer spontanen Gemeinschaft bereitstellt. Basis ist ein generisches Interface, in dem die generellen Anforderungen solcher ad-hoc Infrastrukturen aggregiert sind. Die Implementierung dieses Interfaces in der PABADIS Referenzimplementierung sowie die GegenĂŒberstellung der Systemanforderungen und Systemvoraussetzungen zeigte, das klassische Plug-and-Participate Technologien wie Jini und UPnP aufgrund ihrer Anforderungen nicht geeignet sind - AutomatisierungsgerĂ€te stellen oftmals nur eingeschrĂ€nkte Ressourcen bereit. Daher wurde als zweites Ergebnis neben dem Plug-and-Participate basierten Automatisierungskonzept eine Plug-and-Participate Technologie entwickelt - Pini - die den Gegebenheiten der Automatisierungswelt gerecht wird und schließlich eine Anwendung von PABADIS auf heutigen Automatisierungsanlagen erlaubt. Grundlegende Konzepte von Pini, die dies ermöglichen, sind die gesamte Grundarchitektur auf Basis eines verteilten Lookup Service, die Art und Weise der DienstreprĂ€sentation sowie die effiziente Nutzung der angebotenen Dienste. Mit Pini und darauf aufbauenden Konzepten wie PLAP ist es nun insbesondere möglich, Automatisierungssysteme wie PABADIS auf heutigen Anlagen zu realisieren. Das wiederum ist ein Schritt in Richtung Kundenorientierung - solche Systeme sind mit Hinblick auf FlexibilitĂ€t und AnpassungsfĂ€higkeit gestaltet worden, um KundenbedĂŒrfnissen effizient gerecht zu werden

    Maintaining and improving supplier relations with auditing– A study at ABB Sweden and Singapore

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    Background: In today’s globalized world, many producing companies depend on large supplier networks. Supplier relations require maintenance and a tool for that is supplier auditing. ABB is a leader in power and automation technologies that enable industrial customers to improve performance while lowering environmental impact. ABB business division Process Automation (PA) and business unit Control Technologies (CT), abbreviated as PACT, has established close partnerships with many of their suppliers. This emphasizes the importance of conducting audits, since a supplier partnership means mutual dependence between the parties. ABB PACT has to be able to rely on the contracted supplier’s performance, while the supplier has to be able to rely on ABB as a strong and long-term customer. Key actors within auditing at ABB PACT express that there is room for improvement within the audit processes. Purpose: The purpose of this Master Thesis is divided into two parts. The first part is to find out whether there is improvement potential of the audit processes and the use of audits at ABB PACT both in Sweden and Singapore. The second part is to find out how the audit processes could be improved. Research questions: By introducing generic research questions that do not focus on a specific case, this Master Thesis has potential to contribute with findings for the academy in general as well. This study will answer the following research questions in order to achieve the purpose: Frequency ‱ What is an appropriate frequency for conducting supplier audits in order to maintain and develop supplier relations? Measurement ‱ What is an appropriate design for a measurement system that facilitates and motivates for supplier performance improvements? vi Consistency ‱ What is an appropriate way of administrating and documenting audits in a consequent manner in order to facilitate information sharing and communication between auditors? Competence ‱ What is an appropriate level of competence for auditors in order to conduct efficient audits and how can it be achieved? Method: A mixture of the systems approach and the actors approach are used in this Master Thesis. The systems approach includes both qualitative and quantitative data collection and the actors approach is used since many personal opinions have played an important role in the study. Furthermore, an abductive research strategy is used, since the study results are derived from critically evaluating a combination of obvious values and observed processes. Mostly qualitative data from interviews and a survey is used. The survey and old audit material also contribute with some quantitative data. The data collection methods are a literature study, interviews, a survey, and a case study. Findings: This study proves that there is improvement potential regarding the policy for when to conduct audits, the measurement system in the audit templates, the consistency in the audit process and the level of competence among the auditors. A prerequisite for the following recommendations to be useful is a clear supplier audit organization. The following suggestions are the authors’ recommendations to ABB for how more consistent, efficient and probably better audits will be achieved: ‱ There should be clear instructions regarding the annual supplier KPI update and the result of it should show clearly if an audit has to be conducted or not. ‱ All audit templates should use the same scoring system with a passing level at 50% and each graded question should be commented and motivated. ‱ Each audit guide should contain a Gantt chart clearly showing the activities in the audit process and the documents used in each step of the process. ‱ The responsibilities pre, during and post audit should be clearly stated and communicated. ‱ Classroom training of internal audit procedures should be offered vii The following conclusions apply to the research questions. An appropriate frequency for when to conduct an audit was not found. Instead, the findings show that the importance lies within having a well implemented and communicated policy for deciding whether a supplier has to be audited or not. If such a policy is not already implemented, it should be done and communicated clearly. An appropriate design for a measurement system was found. The same scoring system should apply for all audits, it should contain an appropriate scoring scale that notices and motivates potential improvements and it should require the auditor to comment and motivate the given scores. An appropriate way of administrating and documenting audits in a consequent way was found. The audits should contain a clear schedule for the different steps, tasks and documents used in an audit. The audit responsibilities should also be clearly communicated. The documentation of an audit should be administrated through a global database. A competent auditor should have both process and audit knowledge. However, an appropriate level of competence is hard to decide on. In the ABB case, the general opinion is that the auditors’ process knowledge is big but that the auditors lack in specific audit competence. By providing internal audit training for the auditors, the appropriate level of holistic competencecould be achieved
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