Reducing postharvest losses in the OIC member countries

It is universally understood that postharvest losses are high, particularly in less developed economies, and that this is an issue of keen interest to researchers, practitioners and policy makers alike. Postharvest losses are defined by COMCEC as food damage or degradation of food during different stages of the food supply chain that are incurred between the farm-gate and prior to retail and consumption. Highlights of this report. • Clear evidence of substantial postharvest losses across all Members and commodity groups and these are similar to those reported in non-OIC Member Countries. Figures are estimates though. • Pockets of high physical losses identified: e.g., fruit and vegetables, root and tuber crops and meat and meat products • High economic losses for cereals and fish and fish products • Nutrition losses were rarely reported but for cereals in Sub-Saharan Africa losses could be equivalent to the annual caloric requirement of 48 million people • Weak policy support to effecting loss reduction strategies almost universal • Limited on-going measurement of postharvest losses means impact of innovation and policy was hard to measure This analysis of postharvest losses in the OIC Member Countries, conducted by a team from the Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University of Greenwich between January and July 2016, sought to provide ways to contribute to reduced postharvest losses. The analysis sought to identify approach and practices, and policy recommendation for future investments. The methods used were a combination of a brief literature review, an on-line survey of key informants, and a series of commodity specific case studies that included three field visits. The scope of the study included all OIC Member Countries, all three official Regional Groups of OIC Member Countries (African, Asian and Arab), and representation from seven commodity groups (cereals, roots and tubers, oilseeds and pulses, fruit and vegetables, meat and meat products, milk and dairy products and fish and seafood). Field visits were conducted in Indonesia, Bangladesh and Oman. A conceptual framework was developed from knowledge of the literature and the challenges and complexities of measuring postharvest losses. The postharvest physical losses in OIC countries reported by commodity group for the literature review, online survey and case/field studies suggested that they were not that different from the global losses for each commodity that the authors extracted from FAO data. For cereals, root and tuber crops, oilseeds and pulses, fruit and vegetables, meat and meat products, milk and dairy products and fish and fish products, the extrapolated losses from FAO data was 12-15%, 22-34%, 15-38%, 11-12% and 16-25% respectively. Compared to this, the range found from the OIC study was 9-48%, 7-50%, 14%, 3-65%. 6-40%, 2-30% and 3-50% respectively. Although the spread is wider that the estimates from FAO reports, it is considered to be consistent. Thus the postharvest losses in OIC countries are not that different from elsewhere. Some commodities and countries are well covered (e.g. maize in Uganda), but most are poorly analysed in existing research, with some significant knowledge gaps identified (e.g., some countries with little or no literature, other commodities under researched). The postharvest economic losses were less consistently reported and difficult to compare with the global situation due to differences in reporting (monetary amounts or percentages), different sizes of economies and differing product values. For example, postharvest losses were considered large and the order of US$1 to 4 billion and US$4.8 billion per annum for cereals (Egypt and Uganda) and fish (Indonesia) respectively but as low as US$8 to 21 million per annum for tomatoes in Bangladesh. This probably reflects the difficulties in estimating losses as well as valuation. The least known/understood postharvest loss in our analysis was regarding the quality/nutrition losses and was limited to calories in cereals to vitamin A for biofortified cassava. Such information will be critical for countries suffering from nutrition deficiency. Bringing together the estimates for physical, economic and quality/nutrition losses in the OIC Member Countries along with comparisons with the global situation has highlighted a few lessons and gaps. The bulk of the information obtained from the literature review, online survey and case/desk studies concerned the physical losses. This is probably because physical losses are easier to estimate either by direct measurement or by visual inspection. It should be noted however, that all are estimates and few studies are quantitative. Much less was reported concerning the economic losses and the amounts will differ markedly from one value chain for another, even for the same product and commodity. This, therefore, is an area of research that would require more inputs and due to the high cost of undertaking such work, the target value chains would need to be selected according to economic contribution to the OIC Member Country. In all cases the monetary cost of the losses was significant but it was not always known how the costs were estimated. If the monetary losses could be captured, this will lead to benefits for the consumer and actors in the value chain along with potential benefits to national balance of payments. The least known was regarding the quality/nutrition losses but such information may be critical for countries suffering from nutrition deficiency, particularly calories and vitamins. Key findings concerning specific postharvest research issues was sparse and geographically scattered. Some commodities have a greater coverage than others (e.g. artisanal fisheries and maize are far more researched that cattle or bananas). Some OIC Member Countries and regions have seen much more postharvest loss research and practice than others. For example, the Africa Group and low income countries has seen more support, probably from donors, which has been driving postharvest loss research. Commodity specific findings are reported and these relate to the product characteristics, uses and markets they each fall into. For example for the cereals, the challenges were related mainly to drying and storage, especially related to pests in store, whereas for other root crops peeling, storage and marketing were the highest postharvest loss elements reported. For oilseed and pulses, key issues related to storage largely due to the impact of storage pests. For fruit and vegetables, the issue was the high perishability and ease of damage. Meat and meat products issues related to high transport losses for live animals are often a factor of distance to market or slaughter and the absence of infrastructure including adequate cold chains. For milk and dairy products, key issues were related to the need to upgrade the milk and dairy value chains, particularly setting standards, organising farmers and supporting the emergence of cool-chains. Lastly for fish and fish products, the key issues related to postharvest losses in aquaculture. Investments in cold chains and improved postharvest handling could substantially reduce postharvest losses and food safety concerns. A range of common challenges were identified. These include the underestimation of the impact of rodents on losses, the importance of the impact of actions taken on farm that can affect postharvest losses, the impact of toxins such as aflatoxin, the benefit from development of cold-chain infrastructure and the existence of policies supporting strategic crops has, in some cases, led to a history of under-investment in postharvest management by the private sector. The impact of gender also appears to have under investigated or reported. A range of common solutions were identified on the farm, in the postharvest value chain and ones that were systemic such as rules and standards, capacity and training etc. For example breeding to improve the storability of fruit and vegetables and root and tuber crops would reduce losses, early quality differentiation to improve marketability etc. A number of examples of best practice were given related to ownership, the value of ICT technology, investment for stored fruit and vegetables and sharing information via mobile phones, strategic investment such as cold chain infrastructure, the emergence of new industries from waste, multi-actor collaboration and the importance of national loss-reporting systems (for example APHLIS and Indonesian Fisheries Sector). A number of policy recommendations were suggested to advise OIC Member Countries locate and quantify postharvest losses. These focused on the need for establishing national postharvest loss reduction coordination approaches, establishing consistent methods, sharing best practice and promoting system wide efforts, promoting capacity building and sharing among OIC Member Countries, facilitating local, national and, potentially, regional multi-stakeholder commodity platforms etc. Lastly, to overcome the challenge that postharvest losses is generally more complex than pre-harvest losses due to the greater diversity of products and end uses and markets that the products are directed at a strategy for prioritise which commodity groups and value chains are most important at the national level was suggested

Dairy development for the resource poor. Part 3: Pakistan and India dairy development case studies

The process of dairy development that this study addresses is driven by underlying fundamental changes in economic growth, the value of resources and consumer demand. However, it is also shaped by public policies, interventions and investment decisions and will be accompanied by changes in impact on incomes, opportunities and livelihoods of producers and changes in opportunities and returns for market agents and investors. This study examines dairy development in two key dairy producing regions in the developing world: East Africa and South Asia. The aim of the study is to analyse the trends in dairy development in these two regions and identify their key determinants, to analyse the impact of policy interventions on those trends and to identify impacts of dairy development, particularly on the poor. The study is reported in three parts: Part 1 presents a conceptual framework for dairy development, followed by a section presenting a regional analysis of dairy development trends across all the countries in the two regions and a synthesis of the outcomes of the case study analyses (see below), highlighting implications for policy interventions and investment, including proposing a model for pro-poor dairy development. Parts 2 and 3 consist of in-depth case studies and analyses of dairy development trends, determinants and outcomes in Kenya and Ethiopia (Part 2) and India and Pakistan (Part 3 – this report)

Exploring the regional, economic, and subjective factors affecting milk consumption in Iran

Achieving sustainable development goals of communities requires sustainable food security programs. Overconsumption and underconsumption of dairy products can lead to nutritional, economic and environmental aspects. This thesis deals with the factors affecting milk consumption in Iran. The thesis structure is arranged in two separate but related studies that are presented in two distinct chapters and elaborated with four supplementary chapters, namely, general introduction, literature review, research design, and final conclusion. Using cross-sectional data related to the year 2013 (the most recent available and official data), econometric modeling was performed to explain patterns of milk consumption worldwide (chapter 4). By incorporating dummy variables, per capita milk consumption in 164 countries is predictable in 11 different patterns. The nonlinear econometric model also showed that milk consumption exponentially increases when HDI grows. However, each given country follows its own growth curve, based on the area in which it is present. While the predicted value of the model was close to the actual value for many countries; it was shown that milk consumption in Iran did not follow its regional pattern. Therefore, it was concluded that non-economic factors (such as consumer attitudes) had a remarkable impact on Iranian dairy consumption. Using a mixed-method Q technique, the second study (chapter five) discovered four distinct viewpoints in Iranian people toward milk and dairy products. Exploratory Factor Analysis was employed to identify and interpret the diversity of views. The clustering of results also showed that consumers can be divided into three distinct groups. This conclusion can be of particular interest to policymakers and marketers In chapter six, the conclusions were discussed in detail, along with the research limitations, policy recommendations, and directions for future research.A realização de objetivos e metas de desenvolvimento sustentável das comunidades requer programas sustentáveis de segurança alimentar. O consumo excessivo ou insuficiente de leite e de produtos lácteos em geral acarreta consequências nutricionais, ambientais e económicas quer a nível individual quer a nível social. O Mundo enfrenta dois grandes desafios nos setores agrícola e alimentar: por um lado, as necessidades de nutrição humana devem ser atendidas na quantidade e qualidade apropriadas; Por outro lado, os recursos naturais devem ser preservados de maneira sustentável. A presente Tese trata dos fatores que afetam o consumo de leite no Irão. A estrutura da Tese é organizada em dois estudos separados, mas relacionados, que são apresentados em dois capítulos distintos e elaborados em quatro capítulos adicionais. Uma introdução geral, a revisão de literatura e o desenho e a metodologia de investigação são apresentados nos capítulos um, dois e três, respetivamente. Em seguida, os dois principais estudos são descritos nos capítulos quatro e cinco, respetivamente. No primeiro estudo (capítulo quatro), foi considerada a variabilidade internacional da capitação da ingestão de leite. O objetivo deste estudo foi o de tentar esclarecer o conjunto de fatores que explicam o consumo de leite per capita em todo o Mundo. Foram usados dados transversais da FAO relativos ao ano de 2013 (os dados disponíveis e oficiais mais recentes) referentes à oferta de leite per capita que foi considerada como variável dependente. O PIB per capita (PPC, dólares internacionais atuais), o Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano e a taxa de alfabetização foram tratados como variáveis independentes para 164 países agrupados em cinco continentes e em 20 áreas regionais. A variável dependente apresentou correlação positiva com todas as variáveis independentes. A construção de um modelo econométrico não linear, empregando o Eviews 10, mostrou que o consumo de leite aumenta exponencialmente quando o IDH cresce. Todavia, cada país segue sua própria curva de crescimento, com base na área geográfica em que se encontra inserido. A incorporação de variáveis dummy como variáveis explicativas para as 20 regiões do Mundo mostrou que 10 dessas variáveis se revelaram estatisticamente significativas. Todos os restantes países passaram a funcionar como a categoria base. Por conseguinte, foi demonstrado que o consumo de leite per capita dos 164 países pode ser explicado através de 11 padrões diferentes, nos quais o consumo de leite depende da área regional (variável qualitativa) e do IDH (variável quantitativa). Dado que o Irão (juntamente com a Índia, o Paquistão e o Afeganistão) está localizado no sul da Ásia, esperamos que o consumo de leite no Irão siga o padrão dessa região. Enquanto que o modelo previa um consumo de 99,54 quilogramas de leite para o Irão, no ano de 2013, o valor real de tal consumo foi apenas de 46,7 quilogramas. Essa diferença notável indica que o consumo de leite no Irão não seguiu o padrão regional de países semelhantes e que outros fatores determinaram igualmente tal valor. Nos últimos 50 anos, o consumo de leite per capita em diferentes países do Mundo variou de menos de quatro a mais de 400 quilogramas por ano. A média global desse valor aumentou de 76,8 quilogramas em 1961 para 112,9 quilogramas em 2013. No entanto, outros fatores precisam ser considerados para explicar a discrepância entre o consumo de leite no Irão e no Mundo. Além de razões económicas, as opiniões e as crenças dos consumidores parecem desempenhar um papel muito importante nesse sentido. O segundo estudo (capítulo cinco) tratou das perspetivas dos iranianos sobre leite e produtos lácteos. Usando uma técnica Q de método misto, este estudo teve como objetivo descobrir a diversidade de atitudes do povo iraniano em relação ao leite e aos produtos lácteos. A Análise Fatorial Exploratória (Método do Componente Principal e rotação Varimax) foi empregue para identificar e interpretar a diversidade de visões. Realizando seis entrevistas profundas semiestruturadas com especialistas da indústria e do mercado de laticínios, além de autoridades académicas e institucionais, o Concours deste estudo moldou e enriqueceu-se através da revisão da literatura e de outras fontes de informação. 30 extratos foram extraídos como amostra Q e 25 participantes intervieram no procedimento de classificação Q. Quatro fatores significativos foram extraídos como quatro pontos de vista distintos sobre leite e produtos lácteos. De acordo com esses quatro pontos de vista, os consumidores podem ser agrupados em quatro categorias distintas, tal como se apresenta: • Apreciadores • Consumidores desconfiados (preocupados com a saúde) • Compradores Indiferentes • Clientes comuns (economicamente preocupados) Resumindo e integrando os resultados dos dois estudos, as conclusões gerais podem ser resumidas da seguinte forma: • No curso da História e em todo o Mundo, vários padrões de consumo de alimentos foram formados de acordo com os recursos acessíveis internamente; • Os hábitos criam-se e evoluem ao longo do tempo, principalmente no longo prazo. As tendências de oferta de leite nos últimos 50 anos mostram que a ingestão de leite aumentou em muitos países; • O IDH revela-se, por si só, como bastante significativo para explicar a quantidade de oferta de leite em todo o Mundo. No entanto, cada país tem sua própria curva de crescimento correspondente à respetiva área geográfica. As curvas de crescimento da oferta de leite exibem uma natureza exponencial, o que implica que mesmo um pequeno aumento no IDH conduziria a maiores aumentos no consumo de leite; • Alguns países não seguem o padrão regional de consumo de leite em que estão localizados. Nesses países, outros fatores, especialmente os padrões de consumo de laticínios e as atitudes das pessoas em relação ao leite e produtos lácteos, devem ser levados em consideração; • Fatores económicos devem ser considerados fatores de incentivo, ao invés de detonadores iniciais do processo; • A consciencialização crescente acerca de questões nutricionais afeta gradualmente os padrões de consumo de alimentos em relação a escolhas alimentares mais saudáveis. Por outro lado, comportamentos habituais, em associação com barreiras económicas, tendem a oferecer resistência às mudanças. No capítulo seis, as conclusões foram discutidas em detalhe, juntamente com as limitações da investigação, as recomendações de políticas e as orientações para investigações futuras

Technological Changes in the Transportation Sector--Effects on U.S. Food and Agricultural Trade: A Proceedings

ERS sponsored a workshop, Technological and Structural Change in the Transportation Sector: Effects on U.S. Food and Agricultural Trade, March 17-18, 1999, in Washington, DC. The program's objectives were to raise awareness within ERS about the role and importance of transportation in U.S. food and agricultural trade and to discuss the need of an agency research agenda in this area. More than 60 people attended. Bob Thompson of the World Bank and Jeffrey Frankel of the Brookings Institution led with discussions about the role of transportation in the global food system and the importance of integrating geography and transportation in analysis of international trade. Other panels dealt with transportation technology, past and future, the changing policy environment for ocean shipping, logistical and technological developments aiding exports of specific commodities, including the use of supply chain management. Representatives of the Agricultural Marketing Service discussed the availability of transportation cost data, and the availability of other shipping data was discussed by representatives of the PIERS database, a product of the Journal of Commerce. Two ERS research projects were summarized, one using GTAP and another applying the gravity model to estimate the extent to which distance is less of an inhibiting factor in exporting certain U.S. agricultural exports. The administrator of the Agricultural Marketing Service, the ERS associate administrator, and representatives of the Transportation Research Board, the USDA's World Board, and the Farm Foundation discussed potential ways ERS could include the transportation variable in its research. The program was cosponsored by the Farm Foundation and World Perspectives, Inc.transportation, distance, technology, agricultural trade, United States, Public Economics, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Measuring food and nutritional losses through value stream mapping along the dairy value chain in Uganda

The growing burden of food losses has intensified the need for reliable and comparable data. This study extends the application of lean manufacturing practices and uses Value Stream Mapping (VSM) analysis with the Food Loss and Waste (FLW) Accounting and Reporting Standard to identify hotspots and analyze the magnitude of both food and nutritional losses in the food value chain. A case study on the dairy value chain in Uganda is utilized to understand the production configuration (primary production, processing and distribution). Through linking hotspots where food loss in milk production takes place to specific salient reasons, this case provides an estimation of the magnitude of losses occurring in yogurt and UHT milk production lines. Findings reaffirm the processing stage as a principle hotspot for discarding yogurt as well as UHT milk products. Throughout processing, from start to finish, food losses at chain level are estimated to be in the magnitude of up to 14%. This also translates to a substantial nutritional value disappearing from the food system, which compromises the ability of people to meet their nutrient recommendations. The case study represents a pragmatic assessment that combines the mapping advantages of VSM with accounting and reporting guidelines of FLW Accounting and Reporting Standard to contribute to a detailed assessment of food and nutritional losses. Thereby, reinforcing initiation of evidence-based and targeted reduction strategies along food supply chains

Wissensstandsanalyse zu Qualität, Verbraucherschutz und Verarbeitung ökologischer Lebensmittel

Zielsetzung des Projektes war es, den aktuellen Stand des Wissens zur Qualität und Verarbeitung ökologischer Lebensmittel sowie zum Verbraucherschutz aufzuzeigen und zu bewerten. Das Projektteam setzte sich aus Wissenschaftlern des Forschungsinstituts für biologischen Landbau (Deutschland und Schweiz), des Büros für Lebensmittelkunde, des Forschungsrings für Biologisch-Dynamische Wirtschaftsweise e.V. sowie des Fachgebiets Ökologische Lebensmittelqualität und Ernährungskultur der Universität Kassel zusammen. In dem zeitlich sehr begrenzten Projekt fokussierte die Arbeitsgruppe die Betrachtung auf folgende Themenkomplexe und Produktgruppen: Bereich Qualität - Ernährung - Sensorik - Ökospezifische Qualitäten - Authentizität und Rückverfolgbarkeit Bereich Verarbeitung - Rohwaren/Lagerung und Technologien für die Produktgruppen: -- Getreide -- Milch -- Fleisch -- Obst und Gemüse und Erzeugnisse aus diesen - Nachhaltigkeit im Unternehmen und entlang der Prozesskette - Verpackung Vorhandenes Wissen, aktuelle Fragestellungen und Entwicklungsrichtungen wurden nach thematisch angepassten Vorgehensweisen identifiziert und anhand internationaler Literatur und Experteninterviews diskutiert. Zu allen Themenkomplexen wurden kurze und allgemeinverständliche Reports erstellt, die einen schnellen und fundierten Überblick zum aktuellen Stand des Wissens und zu eventuellen Wissenslücken geben. Der Abschlussreport wurde in deutscher und englischer Sprache veröffentlicht. Insgesamt wurde festgestellt, dass in den betrachteten Themenkomplexen erheblicher Bedarf an Forschung und Entwicklung sowie an Wissenstransfer besteht. Neben einer Reihe von Detailfragen sind grundlegende Themen, wie beispielsweise das Anforderungsprofil an eine „ökologische Verarbeitung“, nicht hinreichend erforscht und geklärt. Diese Arbeiten sind jedoch Voraussetzung für die Bearbeitung von Detailthemen, da hier Aufgabenstellungen, Schwerpunktsetzungen und Methoden definiert werden

Food systems and diets: Facing the challenges of the 21st century

The world is facing a nutrition crisis: approximately three billion people from every one of the world’s 193 countries have low-quality diets. Over the next 20 years, multiple forms of malnutrition will pose increasingly serious threats to global health. Population growth combined with climate change will place increasing stress on food systems, particularly in Africa and Asia where there will be an additional two billion people by 2050. At the same time, rapidly increasing urbanization, particularly in these two regions, will affect hunger and nutrition in complex ways – both positively and negatively. Unless policy makers apply the brakes on overweight, obesity and diet-related disease and accelerate efforts to reduce undernutrition, everyone will pay a heavy price: death, disease, economic losses and degradation of the environment. A response, equivalent to that marshalled to tackle HIV/AIDS, malaria and smoking is needed to meet these challenges. Around the world, coordinated action needs to be accompanied by fundamental shifts in our understanding and in our policy actions. Much more emphasis must be given to positioning agricultural growth as a way to improve diet quality, rather than merely delivering sufficient calories. Food systems need to be repositioned from just supplying food to providing high-quality diets for all. This will require policy initiatives far beyond agriculture to encompass trade, the environment and health, which harness the power of the private sector and empower consumers to demand better diets. This report is a call to action for world leaders and their governments. Leadership and commitment will be essential in driving forward the decisions set out in this report and in delivering the necessary priority actions to reshape the global food system

Effect of post-slaughter handling on physico-chemical and microbiological quality of red meat along the distribution chain in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

The broad objective of the study was to investigate the effect of post-slaughter handling in the distribution chain on red meat quality and safety. A survey was conducted among 300 consumers and 100 meat handlers in five different municipalities (Buffalo City, Nkonkobe, Ngqushwa, Lukhanje and Amahlathi) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa to investigate their perceptions on meat quality and safety, together with challenges faced by meat handlers during the distribution of meat from the abattoir to retailers. The microbiological profile and physico-chemical quality of red meat at different stages of the abattoir to retail outlets in the distribution chain were also determined. Swabs (n=216) and meat samples (n=450) were collected from beef, pork and mutton carcasses during the loading process of carcasses into trucks at the abattoir, when offloading carcasses at the supply points and during marketing. Physico-chemical qualities such as colour (L* - lightness, b* - redness and a* - yellowness) and meat pH measurements were taken at each point. To determine the microbiological profiles of the carcasses, four microbiological parameters were considered: Total bacteria count (general bacteria), coliform count (related to hygiene and indicator for pathogens), Escherichia coli (Gram-negative pathogen) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive pathogen). Two types of packaging (vacuum and overwrapping) were used to determine their effect on shelf-life and microbiological quality of red meat under the normal marketing conditions over a storage duration of 15 days. The results from the study showed low awareness of consumers about the pathogenic diseases which arise from meat. A strong significant association (p ˂ 0.05) between educational status and awareness on meat safety was observed. Most of the consumers perceived that quality goes beyond safety such that 35.6 percent of the respondents indicated that they did not have a problem with consuming spoiled meat, whilst the remaining 64.4 percent indicated that they would r eject spoiled meat. Although retailers indicated that they take meat safety into consideration in their shops, 92 percent of the retailers revealed that they do not perform microbial assessment of meat in their shops. A series of loading and off-loading, temperature fluctuations, environmental temperatures and ques during offloading were reported as the major challenges during transportation of carcasses from the abattoir to the supply points. The microbial counts were significantly (p<0.05) higher in samples from the commercial abattoir than in those from the communal abattoir. Escherichia coli was the predominant microbial contaminant in the samples from both abattoirs. When following the chain, total bacterial count (TBC), coliform count (CC) and the levels of E. coli contamination increased progressively between the loading and the off-loading points (5.1 to 7.9 log10 CFU/cm2; 5.0 to 5.6 log10 CFU/cm2 and 2.7 to 3.7 log10 CFU/cm2, respectively). The storage period, meat type, distance during transportation and temperature were found to have a significant impact on the microbial levels during the distribution of carcasses. Distribution stage had a significant effect (p<0.05) on some of the physico- chemical meat quality attributes and differences in the lightness (L*) and redness (a*) values between the loading, off-loading and display points were observed. Consumers perceived retailer class as one of the factors influencing meat quality, but according to the instrumental measurements retailer class did not have a significant effect on physico-chemical meat quality. However, distance and storage duration significantly (p<0.05) affected (L*) and (a*) values in the meat during distribution chain. Vacuum and overwrapping packaging significantly affected (p<0.05) the shelf life of meat. Therefore, it was concluded that post-slaughter handling during the distribution chain affects the physico- chemical, microbiological and shelf-life of meat