Use of loaded conditioning activities to potentiate middle- and long-distance performance: a narrative review and practical applications

The warm-up is an integral component of a middle- and long-distance athlete’s pre-performance routine. The use of a loaded conditioning activity (LCA), which elicits a post-activation potentiation (PAP) response to acutely enhance explosive power performance, is well-researched. A similar approach incorporated into the warm-up of a middle- or long-distance athlete potentially provides a novel strategy to augment performance. Mechanisms that underpin a PAP response, relating to acute adjustments within the neuromuscular system, should theoretically improve middle- and long-distance performance via improvements in sub-maximal force-generating ability. Attempts to enhance middle- and long-distance related outcomes using a LCA have been used in several recent studies. Results suggest benefits to performance may exist in well-trained middle- and long-distance athletes by including high-intensity resistance training (1-5 repetition maximum) or adding load to the sport skill itself during the latter part of warm-ups. Early stages of performance appear to benefit most, and it is likely that recovery (5-10 min) also plays an important role following a LCA. Future research should consider how priming activity, designed to enhance the V[Combining Dot Above]O2 kinetic response, and a LCA may interact to affect performance, and how different LCA’s might benefit various modes and durations of middle- and long-distance exercise

Use of loaded conditioning activities to potentiate middle- and long-distance performance: a narrative review and practical applications

The warm-up is an integral component of a middle- and long-distance athlete’s pre-performance routine. The use of a loaded conditioning activity (LCA), which elicits a post-activation potentiation (PAP) response to acutely enhance explosive power performance, is well-researched. A similar approach incorporated into the warm-up of a middle- or long-distance athlete potentially provides a novel strategy to augment performance. Mechanisms that underpin a PAP response, relating to acute adjustments within the neuromuscular system, should theoretically improve middle- and long-distance performance via improvements in sub-maximal force-generating ability. Attempts to enhance middle- and long-distance related outcomes using a LCA have been used in several recent studies. Results suggest benefits to performance may exist in well-trained middle- and long-distance athletes by including high-intensity resistance training (1-5 repetition maximum) or adding load to the sport skill itself during the latter part of warm-ups. Early stages of performance appear to benefit most, and it is likely that recovery (5-10 min) also plays an important role following a LCA. Future research should consider how priming activity, designed to enhance the V[Combining Dot Above]O2 kinetic response, and a LCA may interact to affect performance, and how different LCA’s might benefit various modes and durations of middle- and long-distance exercise

The physiological, perceptual and neuromuscular responses of team sport athletes to a running and cycling high intensity interval training session

This version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review (when applicable) and is subject to Springer Nature’s AM terms of use, but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Version of Record is available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-022-05053-8Purpose: The acute physiological, perceptual and neuromuscular responses to volume-matched running and cycling high intensity interval training (HIIT) were studied in team sport athletes. Methods: In a randomized cross-over design, 11 male team sport players completed 3 x 6 min (with 5 min between sets) repeated efforts of 15 s exercising at 120% speed (s"V" ̇O2max) or power (p"V" ̇O2max) at VO2max followed by 15 s passive recovery on a treadmill or cycle ergometer, respectively. Results: Absolute mean "V" ̇O2 (ES [95%CI] = 1.46 [0.47-2.34], p 90% VO2max during the HIIT was higher for running compared to cycling (ES [95%CI] = 1.21 [0.26-2.07], p = 0.015). Overall differential RPE (dRPE) (ES [95%CI] = 0.55 [-0.32-1.38], p = 0.094) and legs dRPE (ES [95%CI] = -0.65 [-1.48-0.23], p = 0.111) were similar whereas breathing dRPE (ES [95%CI] = 1.01 [0.08-1.85], p = 0.012) was higher for running. Maximal isometric knee extension force was unchanged after running (ES [95%CI] = -0.04 [-0.80-0.8], p = 0.726) compared to a moderate reduction after cycling (ES [95%CI] = -1.17 [-2.02- -0.22], p = 0.001). Conclusion: Cycling HIIT in team sport athletes is unlikely to meet the requirements for improving run-specific metabolic adaptation but might offer a greater lower limb neuromuscular load

The effects of a cycling warm-up including high-intensity heavy-resistance conditioning contractions on subsequent 4 km time trial performance

Prior exercise has been shown to improve subsequent performance via different mechanisms. Sport-specific conditioning contractions can be used to exploit the 'post-activation potentiation' (PAP) phenomenon to enhance performance although this has rarely been investigated in short endurance events. The aim of this study was to compare a cycling warm-up with PAP-inducing conditioning contractions (CW) with a moderate intensity warm-up (MW) on performance and physiological outcomes of 4 km time trial. Ten well-trained male endurance cyclists (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max 65.3 +/- 5.6 ml[middle dot]kg-1[middle dot]min-1) performed two 4 km cycling time trials following a 5-minute recovery after a warm-up at 60% of V[Combining Dot Above]O2max for 6.5-minutes (MW), and a warm-up with conditioning contractions (CW) consisting of 5 minutes at 60% of V[Combining Dot Above]O2max then 3 x 10-seconds at 70% of peak power interspersed with 30-seconds recovery. Blood lactate concentrations were measured before and after time trial. Expired gases were analysed along with time, power output (PO), and peak forces over each 500 m split. Following CW, mean completion time was reduced (1.7 +/- 3.5 s p > 0.05), PO increased (5.1 +/- 10.5 W p > 0.05) as did peak force per pedal stroke (5.7 +/- 11 N p > 0.05) when compared to MW. V[Combining Dot Above]O2 increased (1.4 +/- 1.6 ml[middle dot]kg-1[middle dot]min-1 p < 0.05) following CW, whilst RER decreased (0.05 +/- 0.02 p < 0.05). Physiological and performance differences following CW were greatest over the first 1500 m of the trials. The results suggest a PAP-inducing warm-up alters V[Combining Dot Above]O2 kinetics and can lead to performance improvements in short endurance cycling but work and recovery durations should be optimised for each athlete

The effects of prior postactivation potentiation on 4 km cycling time trial performance

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of post-activation potentiation (PAP) on performance and physiological measures during endurance cycling. Eleven well trained male endurance cyclists (mean ± SD; 32.7 ± 10.3 yr; 70.7 ± 7.2 kg; VO2max 65.3 ± 5.3 ml·kg-1·min-1) performed two 4 km cycling time trials on separate days following 5 minutes recovery after a) a moderate intensity cycling warm-up at 60% of VO2peak for 6.5 minutes (CONTCOND), and b) a PAP-inducing cycling warm-up (PAPCOND) consisting of 5 minutes at 60% of VO2peak then 3 x 10 s at 70% of peak power interspersed with 30 s recovery, in a counterbalanced design. Before the start of the time trial blood lactate was significantly elevated following PAP-inducement compared to the moderate warm-up (4.88 ± 1.36 mM·L-1 vs 1.14m ± 0.26 mM·L-1). A non-significant possibly small improvement in completion time (1.7 ± 3.5 s, P = 0.17) and a non-significant increase in power (5.1 ± 10.5 W, P = 0.16) were attributed to PAPCOND. Following PAPCOND oxygen uptake (VO2) was elevated by 1.44 ± 1.65 ml·kg-1·min-1 (P = 0.02) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was decreased by 0.05 ± 0.02 (P < 0.01) compared to CONTCOND. All differences were greatest in the first 1500 m. A PAP-inducing warm-up leads to small performance improvements in endurance cycling that are associated with elevated blood lactate and increased VO2. These performance improvements are most evident in the early stages so would be of greatest benefit in short endurance cycle races

Influence of Prior Exercise on VO2 Kinetics Subsequent Exhaustive Rowing Performance

Prior exercise has the potential to enhance subsequent performance by accelerating the oxygen uptake (VO2) kinetics. The present study investigated the effects of two different intensities of prior exercise on pulmonary VO2 kinetics and exercisetime during subsequent exhaustive rowing exercise. It was hypothesized that in prior heavy, but not prior moderateexercise condition, overall VO2 kinetics would be faster and the VO2 primary amplitude would be higher, leading to longerexercise time at VO2max. Six subjects (mean 6 SD; age: 22.964.5 yr; height: 181.267.1 cm and body mass: 75.563.4 kg)completed square-wave transitions to 100% of VO2max from three different conditions: without prior exercise, with priormoderate and heavy exercise. VO2 was measured using a telemetric portable gas analyser (K4b2, Cosmed, Rome, Italy) andthe data were modelled using either mono or double exponential fittings. The use of prior moderate exercise resulted in afaster VO2 pulmonary kinetics response (t1 = 13.4163.96 s), an improved performance in the time to xhaustion(238.8650.2 s) and similar blood lactate concentrations ([La2]) values (11.861.7 mmol.L21) compared to the onditionwithout prior exercise (16.065.56 s, 215.3660.1 s and 10.761.2 mmol.L21, for t1, time sustained at VO2max and [La2], respectively). Performance of prior heavy exercise, although useful in accelerating the VO2 pulmonary kinetics responseduring a subsequent time to exhaustion exercise (t1 = 9.1861.60 s), resulted in a shorter time sustained at VO2max(155.5646.0 s), while [La2] was similar (13.561.7 mmol.L21) compared to the other two conditions. Although both priormoderate and heavy exercise ulted in a faster pulmonary VO2 kinetics response, only prior moderate exercise lead to improved rowing performance.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

The physiological, perceptual and neuromuscular responses of team sport athletes to a running and cycling high intensity interval training session

Purpose: The acute physiological, perceptual and neuromuscular responses to volume-matched running and cycling high intensity interval training (HIIT) were studied in team sport athletes. Methods: In a randomized cross-over design, 11 male team sport players completed 3 × 6 min (with 5 min between sets) repeated efforts of 15 s exercising at 120% speed (sV ˙ O2max) or power (pV ˙ O2max) at V ˙ O2max followed by 15 s passive recovery on a treadmill or cycle ergometer, respectively. Results: Absolute mean V ˙ O2 (ES [95% CI] = 1.46 [0.47–2.34], p 90% V ˙ O2max during the HIIT was higher for running compared to cycling (ES [95% CI] = 1.21 [0.26–2.07], p = 0.015). Overall differential RPE (dRPE) (ES [95% CI] = 0.55 [− 0.32–1.38], p = 0.094) and legs dRPE (ES [95% CI] = − 0.65 [− 1.48–0.23], p = 0.111) were similar, whereas breathing dRPE (ES [95% CI] = 1.01 [0.08–1.85], p = 0.012) was higher for running. Maximal isometric knee extension force was unchanged after running (ES [95% CI] = − 0.04 [− 0.80–0.8], p = 0.726) compared to a moderate reduction after cycling (ES [95% CI] = − 1.17 [− 2.02–0.22], p = 0.001). Conclusion: Cycling HIIT in team sport athletes is unlikely to meet the requirements for improving run-specific metabolic adaptation but might offer a greater lower limb neuromuscular load

Effects of priming and pacing strategy on VO2 kinetics and cycling performance

Copyright © 2015 Human KineticsThis is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Human Kinetics via the DOI in this record.Purpose: To assess whether combining prior ‘priming’ exercise with an all-out pacing strategy was more effective at improving O2 uptake (VO2) kinetics and cycling performance than either intervention administered independently. Methods: Nine males completed target-work cycling performance trials using a self-paced or all-out pacing strategy with or without prior severe-intensity (70%Δ) priming exercise. Breath-by-breath pulmonary VO2 and cycling power output were measured during all trials. Results: Compared to the self-paced-unprimed control trial (22 ± 5 s), the VO2 mean response time (MRT) was shorter (VO2 kinetics was faster) with all-out pacing (17 ± 4 s) and priming (17 ± 3 s), with the lowest VO2 MRT observed when all-out pacing and priming were combined (15 ± 4 s) (P0.05). Conclusions: These findings suggest that combining an all-out start with severe-intensity priming exercise additively improves the VO2 MRT, but not total O2 consumption and cycling performance since these were improved by a similar magnitude in both primed trials relative to the self-paced-unprimed control condition. Therefore, these results support the use of priming exercise as a pre-competition intervention to improve oxidative metabolism and performance during short-duration high-intensity cycling exercise, independent of the pacing strategy adopted

The Response To, and Recovery From Maximum Strength and Power Training in Elite Track and Field Athletes

There is a great deal of research on the responses to resistance training; however, information on the responses to strength and power training conducted by elite strength and power athletes is sparse. Purpose:&nbsp;To establish the acute and 24 hour neuromuscular and kinematic responses to Olympic-style barbell strength and power exercise in elite athletes. Methods: Ten elite track and field athletes completed a series of 3 back squat exercises each consisted of 4 x 5 repetitions. These were done as either strength or power sessions on separate days. Surface electromyography (sEMG), bar velocity and knee angle was monitored throughout these exercises and maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), jump height, central activation ratio (CAR) and lactate were measured pre, post and 24 hours thereafter. Results:&nbsp;Repetition duration, impulse and total work were greater (p&lt;0.01) during strength sessions, with mean power being greater (p&lt;0.01) following the power sessions. Lactate increased (p&lt;0.01) following strength but not power sessions. sEMG increased (p&lt;0.01) across sets for both sessions, with the strength session increasing at a faster rate (p&lt;0.01) and with greater activation (p&lt;0.01) by the end of the final set . MVC declined (p&lt;0.01) following the strength and not the power session, which remained suppressed (p&lt;0.05) 24 hours later; whereas CAR and jump height remained unchanged. Conclusion:&nbsp;A greater neuromuscular and metabolic demand following the strength and not power session is evident in elite athletes, which impaired maximal force production up to 24 hours. This is an important consideration for planning concurrent athletic training

Thigh Ischemia-Reperfusion Model Does Not Accelerate Pulmonary VO2 Kinetics at High Intensity Cycling Exercise

Background: We aimed to investigate the effect of a priming ischemia-reperfusion (IR) model on the kinetics of pulmonary oxygen uptake (VO2) and cardiopulmonary parameters after high-intensity exercise. Our primary outcome was the overall VO2 kinetics and secondary outcomes were heart rate (HR) and O2 pulse kinetics. We hypothesized that the IR model would accelerate VO2 and cardiopulmonary kinetics during the exercise.Methods: 10 recreationally active men (25.7 ± 4.7 years; 79.3 ± 10.8 kg; 177 ± 5 cm; 44.5 ± 6.2 mL kg−1 min−1) performed a maximal incremental ramp test and four constant load sessions at the midpoint between ventilatory threshold and VO2 max on separate days: two without IR (CON) and two with IR (IR). The IR model consisted of a thigh bi-lateral occlusion for 15 min at a pressure of 250 mmHg, followed by 3 min off, before high-intensity exercise bouts.Results: There were no significant differences for any VO2 kinetics parameters (VO2 base 1.08 ± 0.08 vs. 1.12 ± 0.06 L min−1; P = 0.30; τ = 50.1 ± 7.0 vs. 47.9 ± 6.4 s; P = 0.47), as well as for HR (MRT180s 67.3 ± 6.0 vs. 71.3 ± 6.1 s; P = 0.54) and O2 pulse kinetics (MRT180s 40.9 ± 3.9 vs. 48.2 ± 5.6 s; P = 0.31) between IR and CON conditions, respectively.Conclusion: We concluded that the priming IR model used in this study had no influence on VO2, HR, and O2 pulse kinetics during high-intensity cycling exercise