The role of ERBB3 inhibitors as cancers therapeutics

Cancer is the most fatal disease after cardiovascular disease with over 8.2 million deaths worldwide each year. Ever since the serendipitous discovery of mustard gas as an anti-cancer therapeutic in the 1940s, serious efforts have been put into discovering more chemotherapies. Chemotherapies can be categorized into different groups such as alkylating agents (cisplatin, cyclophosphamide), antimetabolites (5-fluorouracil, Ara-C) and mitotic inhibitors (taxanes, vinca alkoids) among others. While chemotherapies have proven to kill cancer cells by targeting cell division processes, over time, tumor cells can adapt and become resistant to these drugs. With a growing understanding of cell signaling networks, targeted therapies are being developed to overcome the issue of chemotherapy resistance. Targeted therapies are highly specific molecules that bind to a specific cellular protein or molecule and block signaling networks associated with biological processes. One of the most frequently dysregulated receptor systems in cancers is the receptor tyrosine kinase family with ErbB being one of the most studied receptors families. ErbB or HER receptors consists of four structurally related receptor tyrosine kinases namely, EGFR/ErbB1, HER2/ErbB2, HER3/ErbB3 and HER4/ErbB4. The ErbB family of receptors plays a major role in morphogenesis of the human body as well as various cellular responses such as cell growth, differentiation and proliferation. Overexpression and dysregulation of these receptors, particularly EGFR and HER2, have been linked to a number of cancers such as breast cancer, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer and non-small cell lung cancer, to name a few. One of the most successful therapies against ErbB related cancers have been targeted therapies. Targeted therapies for ErbB related cancers are of two kinds: (i) Small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (such as erlotinib and gefitinib against EGFR) and, (ii) Monoclonal antibodies (such as trastuzumab against HER2 and cetuximab against EGFR). These drugs function either by inhibiting the kinase activity of the receptor and preventing phosophorylation of tyrosine residues, or binding to some other site on the extracellular domain of the receptor and preventing ligand binding and heterodimerization of ErbB monomers. These drugs have proven to have limited efficacy as monotherapy, but are more effective in combination with standard chemotherapies. However, tumor cells can adapt their signaling networks developing resistance to targeted therapies over the course of treatment and lead to cancer progression. While overexpression and dysfunction of EGFR and HER2 are implicated in most ErbB driven cancers, recent studies have found HER3 playing a pivotal role in inducing resistance to EGFR and HER2 targeted therapies in various cancers and has been found to be the most sensitive node in driving the PI3K pathway leading to tumorigenesis. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop drugs targeted against HER3 and bring them into the clinic. Since HER3 lacks kinase activity, only monoclonal antibodies can be developed against it. Currently, there are a number of molecules in clinical development that target HER3. For example, patritumab and MM-121 are humanized monoclonal antibodies that target the extracellular domain of HER3 receptor and leads to inhibition of HER3-PI3K signaling followed by rapid internalization of the receptor. MM-111 and MM-141, two different bispecific monoclonal antibodies that bind to HER2, HER3 and IGFR-1, HER3, respectively, are currently in clinical development. HER3 inhibitors provide hope to effectively overcome HER3 induced tumor resistance and successfully treat several ErbB driven cancers. However, further development of HER3 inhibitors is necessary by taking strategic approaches. One of these approaches it the utilization of systems biology, a branch of biology that involves computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems with the aim of discovering emergent properties of biological systems. Systems biology enables researchers to get a deeper understanding of biological networks such as that of ErbB and make predictive models and test outcomes. This approach was used by Merrimack Pharmaceuticals to develop novel monoclonal antibodies against HER3. Computational outcomes were successfully validated by in vitro and in vivo experiments. Thus, this suggests that systems biology might be the future of designing and developing HER3 inhibitors that would successfully overcome HER3 resistance and cancer progression

Epidermal growth factor receptor pathway phosphorylation dynamics

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Computational and Systems Biology Program, 2010.Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.Includes bibliographical references (p. 157-168).The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR, also known as ErbB 1) is a prototypical receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) that activates multi-kinase phosphorylation cascades to regulate diverse cellular processes, including proliferation, migration and differentiation. ErbB 1 heterooligomerizes with three close homologues: ErbB2, ErbB3 and ErbB4. ErbB1-3 receptors are frequently mutated, overexpressed or activated by autocrine or paracrine ligand production in solid tumors and have been the target of extensive drug discovery efforts. Multiple small molecule kinase inhibitors and therapeutic antibodies against ErbB receptors are in clinical use or development. Despite their importance as RTKs, oncogenes and drug targets, regulation of ErbB receptors by the interplay of conformational change, phosphorylation, phosphatases and receptor trafficking remains poorly understood, and the impact of these dynamics on physiological activity and cellular responses to anti-ErbB drugs is largely unknown. This thesis investigates the dynamic opposition of kinases and phosphatases within the ErbB pathway. By standard biochemical analysis, ErbB receptors and downstream proteins appear to become phosphorylated and then dephosphorylated in approximately 30 minutes. However, pulse chase experiments where cells are exposed to ligand and then to small molecule kinase inhibitors reveal that individual proteins must in fact cycle rapidly between being phosphorylated and dephosphorylated in seconds. We construct a succession of differential equation-based models of varying biochemical resolution, each model appropriate for analyzing a different aspect of ErbB regulation, to help interpret the data and gain quantitative insight into receptor and drug biology. Rapid phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of receptors has important implications for the assembly dynamics of signalosomes. We find that signals are rapidly propagated through some downstream pathways but slowly through others, resulting in prolonged activation in the absence of upstream signal. We show that fast phosphorylation/dephosphorylation may provide cells with the flexibility necessary to rapidly detect and respond to changes in their extracellular environment. These fast dynamics also play a crucial role in determining the response to ErbB 1-targeting cancer therapies, which we find to vary significantly between drugs with different mechanisms of action. We show that treatment with one class of these drugs results in sustained signaling, instead of inhibition, and thus may actually promote tumor proliferation or invasion. Our work may help explain why certain drugs have been more effective in patients than others and suggests new approaches for evaluating biochemical signaling networks and targeted therapeutics.By Laura B. Kleiman.Ph.D

Targeting the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer: Current Knowledge and Future Challenges

The epidermal growth factor receptor is overexpressed in up to 60% of ovarian epithelial malignancies. EGFR regulates complex cellular events due to the large number of ligands, dimerization partners, and diverse signaling pathways engaged. In ovarian cancer, EGFR activation is associated with increased malignant tumor phenotype and poorer patient outcome. However, unlike some other EGFR-positive solid tumors, treatment of ovarian tumors with anti-EGFR agents has induced minimal response. While the amount of information regarding EGFR-mediated signaling is considerable, current data provides little insight for the lack of efficacy of anti-EGFR agents in ovarian cancer. More comprehensive, systematic, and well-defined approaches are needed to dissect the roles that EGFR plays in the complex signaling processes in ovarian cancer as well as to identify biomarkers that can accurately predict sensitivity toward EGFR-targeted therapeutic agents. This new knowledge could facilitate the development of rational combinatorial therapies to sensitize tumor cells toward EGFR-targeted therapies

Diversity of Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Signaling Mechanisms

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are a family of 58 transmembrane proteins in humans that play crucial roles in many biological processes and diseases. Different RTKs utilize subtly (but importantly) distinct molecular mechanisms for transmembrane signaling, and understanding these differences is crucial for devising new ways to intervene pharmacologically when aberrant RTK signaling causes cancer and other diseases. In this thesis, I focus on three RTK families: the ALK/LTK family, the Wnt-binding RTKs, and the EGF receptor – where I concentrate on efforts to understand its C-terminal regulatory region. My studies of ALK, for anaplastic lymphoma kinase, were motivated by the fact that this RTK sub-group has a unique domain architecture in its extracellular region. Little is known about the mechanisms of ligand binding to – and activation of – ALK, and the nature of its ligand(s) is(are) still not completely clear. Using biochemical, biophysical and structural biology approaches, I characterized the low-resolution structure of the ALK extracellular region. I further identified the binding mode of ALK binding to heparin, a recently discovered modulatory ligand for ALK. Based on a low-resolution structural analysis of ALK/heparin complex, I propose a model for ligand-induced ALK dimerization and activation. Ryk is one of the five RTKs that are now known to be Wnt receptors. In this thesis, I studied the Drosophila homolog of Ryk, Derailed (Drl), and its binding to ligand DWnt5. We were able to express and purify milligrams of active DWnt5 – thus overcoming a major obstacle in this field. We further characterized Drl/DWnt5 interactions. Using hydrogen/deuterium exchange approaches, I identified the DWnt5-binding interface on Drl. My efforts to understand the molecular mechanisms of Drl/DWnt5 binding using experimental and computational approaches suggest that DWnt5 may interact with Drl through a binding mode that differs from Wnt binding to other receptors. Across the RTK family, many receptors contain a long carboxy-terminal tail (C-tail) that harbors autophosphorylation sites for docking of downstream signaling molecules. This region is generally considered to be intrinsically disordered. I studied the dynamics of the EGFR C-tail, and showed that it is highly unstructured – but contains some somewhat ‘structured’ regions. I also showed that phosphorylation of the EGFR C-tail promotes receptor dimerization. Using hydrogen exchange, I identified possible C-tail docking sites on the kinase domain that may be responsible for this effect. I also studied binding of downstream SH2 domain-containing molecules to the EGFR C-tail, with results that indicate that not all features of SH2 domain binding to the C-tail can be recapitulated by simple phosphopeptides; binding of SH2 domains to the C-tail exhibits binding affinities and stoichiometries that are not captured by simple peptide-level studies. Moreover, my binding competition assays suggest that there may be cooperativity in binding of multiple SH2 domains to a single phosphorylated C-tail

Novel mechanisms of resistance to EGFR inhibitory drugs in non-small cell lung cancer

EGFR activating mutations are present in 10-40% of non-small cell lung cancer. Such mutations render tumour cells sensitive to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR TKIs), with responses of up to 80% in populations selected for the presence of an activating mutation. Unfortunately, almost all patients develop resistance after about a year. Clinically described mechanisms of resistance include the presence of a secondary mutation (T790M) in EGFR which prevents EGFR TKIs binding to the EGF receptor, and amplification MET which permits survival signalling via the ERBB3 receptor. However in 30% of cases, the mechanism of acquired resistance to EGFR TKIs is still unknown. My aim was to carry out a genome-wide siRNA screen to identify novel mechanisms of resistance to EGFR TKIs. I identified two genes that have not been implicated in EGFR TKI resistance previously, NF1 and DEPTOR, which are negative regulators of RAS and mTOR respectively. Depletion of NF1 or DEPTOR leads to increased resistance to EGFR TKIs via upregulation of MAPK signalling by direct and indirect mechanisms