A Study on Waterfowl Population and Human Use of Hokersar and Hygam Wetlands of Kashmir Valley for Conservation Planning

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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in environmental biology: A Review

Acquiring information about the environment is a key step during each study in the field of environmental biology at different levels, from an individual species to community and biome. However, obtaining information about the environment is frequently difficult because of, for example, the phenological timing, spatial distribution of a species or limited accessibility of a particular area for the field survey. Moreover, remote sensing technology, which enables the observation of the Earth’s surface and is currently very common in environmental research, has many limitations such as insufficient spatial, spectral and temporal resolution and a high cost of data acquisition. Since the 1990s, researchers have been exploring the potential of different types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for monitoring Earth’s surface. The present study reviews recent scientific literature dealing with the use of UAV in environmental biology. Amongst numerous papers, short communications and conference abstracts, we selected 110 original studies of how UAVs can be used in environmental biology and which organisms can be studied in this manner. Most of these studies concerned the use of UAV to measure the vegetation parameters such as crown height, volume, number of individuals (14 studies) and quantification of the spatio-temporal dynamics of vegetation changes (12 studies). UAVs were also frequently applied to count birds and mammals, especially those living in the water. Generally, the analytical part of the present study was divided into following sections: (1) detecting, assessing and predicting threats on vegetation, (2) measuring the biophysical parameters of vegetation, (3) quantifying the dynamics of changes in plants and habitats and (4) population and behaviour studies of animals. At the end, we also synthesised all the information showing, amongst others, the advances in environmental biology because of UAV application. Considering that 33% of studies found and included in this review were published in 2017 and 2018, it is expected that the number and variety of applications of UAVs in environmental biology will increase in the future

Assessing the role of EO in biodiversity monitoring: options for integrating in-situ observations with EO within the context of the EBONE concept

The European Biodiversity Observation Network (EBONE) is a European contribution on terrestrial monitoring to GEO BON, the Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network. EBONE’s aims are to develop a system of biodiversity observation at regional, national and European levels by assessing existing approaches in terms of their validity and applicability starting in Europe, then expanding to regions in Africa. The objective of EBONE is to deliver: 1. A sound scientific basis for the production of statistical estimates of stock and change of key indicators; 2. The development of a system for estimating past changes and forecasting and testing policy options and management strategies for threatened ecosystems and species; 3. A proposal for a cost-effective biodiversity monitoring system. There is a consensus that Earth Observation (EO) has a role to play in monitoring biodiversity. With its capacity to observe detailed spatial patterns and variability across large areas at regular intervals, our instinct suggests that EO could deliver the type of spatial and temporal coverage that is beyond reach with in-situ efforts. Furthermore, when considering the emerging networks of in-situ observations, the prospect of enhancing the quality of the information whilst reducing cost through integration is compelling. This report gives a realistic assessment of the role of EO in biodiversity monitoring and the options for integrating in-situ observations with EO within the context of the EBONE concept (cfr. EBONE-ID1.4). The assessment is mainly based on a set of targeted pilot studies. Building on this assessment, the report then presents a series of recommendations on the best options for using EO in an effective, consistent and sustainable biodiversity monitoring scheme. The issues that we faced were many: 1. Integration can be interpreted in different ways. One possible interpretation is: the combined use of independent data sets to deliver a different but improved data set; another is: the use of one data set to complement another dataset. 2. The targeted improvement will vary with stakeholder group: some will seek for more efficiency, others for more reliable estimates (accuracy and/or precision); others for more detail in space and/or time or more of everything. 3. Integration requires a link between the datasets (EO and in-situ). The strength of the link between reflected electromagnetic radiation and the habitats and their biodiversity observed in-situ is function of many variables, for example: the spatial scale of the observations; timing of the observations; the adopted nomenclature for classification; the complexity of the landscape in terms of composition, spatial structure and the physical environment; the habitat and land cover types under consideration. 4. The type of the EO data available varies (function of e.g. budget, size and location of region, cloudiness, national and/or international investment in airborne campaigns or space technology) which determines its capability to deliver the required output. EO and in-situ could be combined in different ways, depending on the type of integration we wanted to achieve and the targeted improvement. We aimed for an improvement in accuracy (i.e. the reduction in error of our indicator estimate calculated for an environmental zone). Furthermore, EO would also provide the spatial patterns for correlated in-situ data. EBONE in its initial development, focused on three main indicators covering: (i) the extent and change of habitats of European interest in the context of a general habitat assessment; (ii) abundance and distribution of selected species (birds, butterflies and plants); and (iii) fragmentation of natural and semi-natural areas. For habitat extent, we decided that it did not matter how in-situ was integrated with EO as long as we could demonstrate that acceptable accuracies could be achieved and the precision could consistently be improved. The nomenclature used to map habitats in-situ was the General Habitat Classification. We considered the following options where the EO and in-situ play different roles: using in-situ samples to re-calibrate a habitat map independently derived from EO; improving the accuracy of in-situ sampled habitat statistics, by post-stratification with correlated EO data; and using in-situ samples to train the classification of EO data into habitat types where the EO data delivers full coverage or a larger number of samples. For some of the above cases we also considered the impact that the sampling strategy employed to deliver the samples would have on the accuracy and precision achieved. Restricted access to European wide species data prevented work on the indicator ‘abundance and distribution of species’. With respect to the indicator ‘fragmentation’, we investigated ways of delivering EO derived measures of habitat patterns that are meaningful to sampled in-situ observations

Seasonality and nutrient-uptake capacity of Sargassum spp. in Western Australia

The eight-band high resolution multispectral WorldView-2 satellite imagery demonstrated potential for mapping and monitoring Sargassum spp. beds and other associated coastal marine habitats around Rottnest Island and Point Peron. Sargassum spp. in Western Australian coast showed seasonal changes in canopy cover and mean thallus length which are also significantly influenced by the nutrient concentrations. This study documented the life cycle of Sargassum spinuligerum and successfully cultivated the species for the first time in Western Australia

Algal Coverage Detection and Classification using ENVI: Correlation with Dissolved Oxygen Levels in Elkhorn Slough, CA

Estuaries are exposed to varying stressors, whether they be physical, chemical, or environmental. The most notable of stressors is eutrophication of coastal and inland ecosystems. This is a result of increased supply of nutrients fueling production within the system. One outcome of this increased nutrient load to the system is that of algal blooms. These blooms can impact the aesthetic appearance and degrade the quality of health of the system. Many of these coastal zones and waterways are critical habitats for many biological (some endangered) species and serve as recreational areas for human populations. Elkhorn Slough, California is one of these critical habits. Over its history, land use and environmental changes have degraded the quality of the ecosystem. Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (ESNERR) has been tasked with oversight and monitoring responsibilities to maintain the system at a suitable level for the native species to thrive. This study, in conjunction with ESNERR support, will use aerial imagery of designated restoration areas to investigate the ability to use spectral analysis techniques to identify, classify, and calculate the percent coverage of algae masses. The aim is to use the inherent spectral analysis toolboxes in Harris Geospatial’s ENVI to ingest 3-band RGB imagery and differentiate and accurately classify algal coverage. The goal is to compare ENVI’s performance and accuracy, using ground-truthed base-image against traditional, time-intensive hand analytics. There is an extensive imagery library that has not be analyzed. This study will assess the potential ability to automate the process and increase classification capabilities

Cornell University remote sensing program

The major activities of the program staff from December 1, 1973 to May 31, 1974 are reported and include: (1) communication and instruction; (2) data and facilities; (3) research completed; (4) research in progress; (5) selected correspondence; (6) grant sponsored travel; and (7) seminars and newsletters. Detailed information and maps are given for the following selected projects: (1) ERTS mapping of waterways in the Tug Hill region of New York State; (2) photo-archeological investigation of Great Gully, New York; and (3) evaluation of selected highway impacts using aerial photography

Järvedes valitsevad tingimused veetaimestiku kujundajatena

Macrophytes play an important role in lake ecosystems, which provisionally can be divided into an active role consisting of modifying in-lake processes and creating habitat for other groups of biota, and a passive role where macrophytes themselves are subjected to forcing factors within lake environments. The active role of macrofytes as providers of food, shelter and habitat is predominant in small and shallow lakes where the littoral area colonized by plants constitutes a large part of the lake’s total area. With increasing lake area and depth, the active role is gradually declining and replaced by a more passive role in large lakes in which macrophyte distribution and composition are strongly controlled by lake morphometry and meteorological factors. As small and shallow lakes form the majority in the world’s lake population, research has paid more attention to studying the active role of macrophytes. The present thesis, however, has put the emphasis on the opposite aspects – the questions how the in-lake conditions affect the distribution of species, plant architecture and community composition, and how these parameters can be used in lake status assessment. The materials for the present thesis have been collected during 14 years from 9 Estonian lakes, but the bulk of the data originates from Võrtsjärv and two smaller lakes, Prossa and Kaiavere, located in the Vooremaa drumlin area. The spectrum of macrophyte related topics analysed and discussed in the original publications is wide ranging from eco-physiological aspects and aspects of autecology to population ecology and synecology. Given the broad thematic spread of the underlying papers, the synthesis part of the thesis follows the format of a review paper in which the original papers are integraded by references. This format was selected to avoid unnecessary repetition of what was already written in the papers and to enable a more complete overview of the various aspects of the topic, including those not directly covered by the original papers. The complex of factors in lakes can be divided into three major groups – physical, chemical and biological, which have, correspondingly, limnological, metabolic and biotic effects on macrophytes. Limnological effects on macrophytes are expressed through physical parameters of water and sediments, water movements, and conditions of light and temperature, metabolic effects are related to nutrient cycles and production of organic matter, whereas biotic effects are the result of mutual relationships within the plant community or between plants and other groups of biota. These groups of factors form a complex structure which influences on aquatic macrophytes are reviewed in the synthesis part of the thesis in both spatial and temporal scales. The sensitivity of macrophytes to environmental conditions is the basis for their indicator power enabling to use plant community metrics for assessing the ecological status and its trends in water bodies. One of the major results of the studies was the finding out of the complex of factors determining the structure and distribution of macrophytes in Lake Võrtsjärv. Nutrient availability and the effect of prevailing winds play the leading roles in this lake, which owing to the shape of the lake create a distinctive polarization of the littoral vegetation both in a north-south and a west-east gradient. A comparison with historical data from the beginning of the 20th century showed the change in the community composition of macrophytes being the largest among all biotic groups of the lake. Eutrophication resulting from riverine nutrient loadings was proved as the major cause of these changes. A retrospective analysis of satellite images for the last 20 years showed that the changes continue as evidenced by the rapid expansion of the reed belt with an average annual rate of 2.2 m and especially pronounced around the mouths of inflowing rivers. The contribution of macrophyte production to the total primary production over the vegetation period reached 35.5% in Lake Võrtsjärv but was only 10% in the deeper Lake Peipsi. Studies of the two lakes in Vooremaa revealed that the lake size dependent wind impact supports the shift of the balance from the macrophyte dominance to phytoplankton dominance and showed how the resulting differences in light climate change the architecture of submerged plants. Järve ökosüsteemis on veetaimestikul väga oluline roll, mida võib tinglikult jagada aktiivseks, kus veetaimed mõjutavad järves toimuvaid protsesse ja kujundavad elutingimusi teistele järve asukatele ning passiivseks, kus veetaimed on ise mõjutatud järves toimuvatest protsessidest. Väikestes ja madalates järvedes, kus taimedega asustatud litoraal moodustab suure osa järve kogupindalast, on ülekaalus taimede aktiivne funktsioon nii toidu tootja, varje pakkuja kui elupaiga loojana, kuid enamasti see ülekaal kahaneb nii järve pindala ja sügavuse kasvades ning suurtes järvedes on taimestik enam allutatud ilmastikust ja järvenõo kujust sõltuvatele teguritele. Kuna suurem osa järvi maailmas on väikese pindalaga ning madalad, on suurem rõhuasetus veekogude taimestiku uuringutes langenud veetaimestiku aktiivse rolli selgitamisele veekogus. Käesolev töö keskendub vastupidisele aspektile – küsimustele, kuidas mõjutavad järves valitsevad tingimused taimeliikide levikut, nende morfomeetrilisi näitajaid ja taimekoosluste struktuuri ja kuidas neid näitajaid saab kasutada järves valitsevate tingimuste hindamisel. Käesoleva töö materjal on kogutud 14 aasta jooksul kokku üheksast Eesti järvest, kuid peamine andmestik pärineb Võrtsjärvest ja kahest Vooremaa järvest, Prossast ja Kaiaverest. Töös kirjeldatud teemade ring on lai, hõlmates öko-füsioloogilisi, autökoloogilisi, dem-ökoloogilisi ja sün-ökoloogilisi aspekte. Tööde laia temaatilist ulatust arvestades on dissertatsiooni sünteesiv osa koostatud erinevaid uurimusi ühendava ülevaateartikli vormis, millesse üksikartiklite tulemused on lõimitud viidete abil. Töö selline ülesehitus vähendab artiklites esitatu asjatut kordamist ning võimaldab käsitletavast teemast anda oluliselt laiema ja terviklikuma ülevaate, kattes ka neid aspekte, mida töö aluseks olevad artiklid otseselt ei käsitle. Järves valitsevaid tingimusi võib tinglikult jagada kolme suurte rühma – füüsikalised, keemilised ja bioloogilised, mis mõjutavad veetaimestikku limnoloogiliselt, metaboolselt ning biootiliselt. Järve limnoloogiline mõju avaldub läbi vee ja setete füüsikaliste parameetrite, vee liikumise, valgustingimuste ja temperatuuri. Metaboolne mõju on seotud toiteainete ringetega ja orgaanilise aine produktsiooniga ning biootiline mõju on seotud mitmesuguste veekogu organismirühmade ja veetaimestiku vaheliste suhete ning koosluste struktuuriga. Nimetatud tegurite rühmad moodustavad keeruka kompleksi, mille mõju avaldumist veetaimestikule on ülevaates käsitletud nii ajalises kui ruumilises skaalas. Veetaimede tundlikkusel veekogudes valitsevate tingimuste suhtes põhineb nende indikaatorväärtus, mis annab veetaimestiku uuringutele olulise rakendusliku aspekti, võimaldades taimekoosluste järgi hinnata veekogu seisundit ja selles toimuvaid muutusi. Tehtud uuringute ühe peamise tulemustena selgitati välja Võrtsjärve taimekoosluste jaotumist ja struktuuri mõjutav tegurite kompleks, milles juhtival kohal on toiteainete kättesaadavus ja valitsevate tuulte mõju, mis Võrtsjärve spetsiifilise kuju tõttu tekitavad taimestiku omapärase polariseerumise nii põhja-lõuna kui ida-lääne suunas. Võrdlus 20. sajandi algusest pärinevate ajalooliste andmetega näitas, et Võrtsjärve veetaimestiku liigiline koosseis on kõigist elustikurühmadest kõige enam muutunud. Muutuste peamiseks põhjuseks on eutrofeerumine jõgede kaudu järve jõudvate toiteainete mõjul. Viimase 20 aasta satelliidifotodelt nähtub, et muutused jätkuvad, mille üheks ilminguks on roostike kiire laienemine keskmise kiirusega 2.2 m aastas, mis on eriti markantne jõesuudmete ümbruses. Suurtaimede produktsioon moodustas Võrtsjärves 35,5% järve suvisest koguproduktsioonist, sügavamas Peipsis, kus litoraali osakaal järve kogupindalas on väiksem, oli see näitaja 10%. Kahe Vooremaa järve uuringud selgitasid, kuidas järve suurusega kasvav tuule mõju aitab kaasa tasakaalu nihkumisele suurtaimede valitsemiselt fütoplanktoni valitsemisele ja kuidas sel moel kujunevad erinevad valgustingimused muudavad taimede arhitektuuri.Järve ökosüsteemis on veetaimestikul väga oluline roll, mida võib tinglikult jagada aktiivseks, kus veetaimed mõjutavad järves toimuvaid protsesse ja kujundavad elutingimusi teistele järve asukatele ning passiivseks, kus veetaimed on ise mõjutatud järves toimuvatest protsessidest. Väikestes ja madalates järvedes, kus taimedega asustatud litoraal moodustab suure osa järve kogupindalast, on ülekaalus taimede aktiivne funktsioon nii toidu tootja, varje pakkuja kui elupaiga loojana, kuid enamasti see ülekaal kahaneb nii järve pindala ja sügavuse kasvades ning suurtes järvedes on taimestik enam allutatud ilmastikust ja järvenõo kujust sõltuvatele teguritele. Kuna suurem osa järvi maailmas on väikese pindalaga ning madalad, on suurem rõhuasetus veekogude taimestiku uuringutes langenud veetaimestiku aktiivse rolli selgitamisele veekogus. Käesolev töö keskendub vastupidisele aspektile – küsimustele, kuidas mõjutavad järves valitsevad tingimused taimeliikide levikut, nende morfomeetrilisi näitajaid ja taimekoosluste struktuuri ja kuidas neid näitajaid saab kasutada järves valitsevate tingimuste hindamisel. Käesoleva töö materjal on kogutud 14 aasta jooksul kokku üheksast Eesti järvest, kuid peamine andmestik pärineb Võrtsjärvest ja kahest Vooremaa järvest, Prossast ja Kaiaverest. Töös kirjeldatud teemade ring on lai, hõlmates öko-füsioloogilisi, autökoloogilisi, dem-ökoloogilisi ja sün-ökoloogilisi aspekte. Tööde laia temaatilist ulatust arvestades on dissertatsiooni sünteesiv osa koostatud erinevaid uurimusi ühendava ülevaateartikli vormis, millesse üksikartiklite tulemused on lõimitud viidete abil. Töö selline ülesehitus vähendab artiklites esitatu asjatut kordamist ning võimaldab käsitletavast teemast anda oluliselt laiema ja terviklikuma ülevaate, kattes ka neid aspekte, mida töö aluseks olevad artiklid otseselt ei käsitle. Järves valitsevaid tingimusi võib tinglikult jagada kolme suurte rühma – füüsikalised, keemilised ja bioloogilised, mis mõjutavad veetaimestikku limnoloogiliselt, metaboolselt ning biootiliselt. Järve limnoloogiline mõju avaldub läbi vee ja setete füüsikaliste parameetrite, vee liikumise, valgustingimuste ja temperatuuri. Metaboolne mõju on seotud toiteainete ringetega ja orgaanilise aine produktsiooniga ning biootiline mõju on seotud mitmesuguste veekogu organismirühmade ja veetaimestiku vaheliste suhete ning koosluste struktuuriga. Nimetatud tegurite rühmad moodustavad keeruka kompleksi, mille mõju avaldumist veetaimestikule on ülevaates käsitletud nii ajalises kui ruumilises skaalas. Veetaimede tundlikkusel veekogudes valitsevate tingimuste suhtes põhineb nende indikaatorväärtus, mis annab veetaimestiku uuringutele olulise rakendusliku aspekti, võimaldades taimekoosluste järgi hinnata veekogu seisundit ja selles toimuvaid muutusi. Tehtud uuringute ühe peamise tulemustena selgitati välja Võrtsjärve taimekoosluste jaotumist ja struktuuri mõjutav tegurite kompleks, milles juhtival kohal on toiteainete kättesaadavus ja valitsevate tuulte mõju, mis Võrtsjärve spetsiifilise kuju tõttu tekitavad taimestiku omapärase polariseerumise nii põhja-lõuna kui ida-lääne suunas. Võrdlus 20. sajandi algusest pärinevate ajalooliste andmetega näitas, et Võrtsjärve veetaimestiku liigiline koosseis on kõigist elustikurühmadest kõige enam muutunud. Muutuste peamiseks põhjuseks on eutrofeerumine jõgede kaudu järve jõudvate toiteainete mõjul. Viimase 20 aasta satelliidifotodelt nähtub, et muutused jätkuvad, mille üheks ilminguks on roostike kiire laienemine keskmise kiirusega 2.2 m aastas, mis on eriti markantne jõesuudmete ümbruses. Suurtaimede produktsioon moodustas Võrtsjärves 35,5% järve suvisest koguproduktsioonist, sügavamas Peipsis, kus litoraali osakaal järve kogupindalas on väiksem, oli see näitaja 10%. Kahe Vooremaa järve uuringud selgitasid, kuidas järve suurusega kasvav tuule mõju aitab kaasa tasakaalu nihkumisele suurtaimede valitsemiselt fütoplanktoni valitsemisele ja kuidas sel moel kujunevad erinevad valgustingimused muudavad taimede arhitektuuri

Science-based restoration monitoring of coastal habitats, Volume Two: Tools for monitoring coastal habitats

Healthy coastal habitats are not only important ecologically; they also support healthy coastal communities and improve the quality of people’s lives. Despite their many benefits and values, coastal habitats have been systematically modified, degraded, and destroyed throughout the United States and its protectorates beginning with European colonization in the 1600’s (Dahl 1990). As a result, many coastal habitats around the United States are in desperate need of restoration. The monitoring of restoration projects, the focus of this document, is necessary to ensure that restoration efforts are successful, to further the science, and to increase the efficiency of future restoration efforts