Facial features: What women perceive as attractive and what men consider attractive

Attractiveness plays an important role in social exchange and in the ability to attract potential mates, especially for women. Several facial traits have been described as reliable indicators of attractiveness in women, but very few studies consider the influence of several measurements simultaneously. In addition, most studies consider just one of two assessments to directly measure attractiveness: either self-evaluation or men's ratings. We explored the relationship between these two estimators of attractiveness and a set of facial traits in a sample of 266 young Spanish women. These traits are: facial fluctuating asymmetry, facial averageness, facial sexual dimorphism, and facial maturity. We made use of the advantage of having recently developed methodologies that enabled us to measure these variables in real faces.We also controlled for three other widely used variables: age, body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio. The inclusion of many different variables allowed us to detect any possible interaction between the features described that could affect attractiveness perception. Our results show that facial fluctuating asymmetry is related both to selfperceived and male-rated attractiveness. Other facial traits are related only to one direct attractiveness measurement: facial averageness and facial maturity only affect men's ratings. Unmodified faces are closer to natural stimuli than are manipulated photographs, and therefore our results support the importance of employing unmodified faces to analyse the factors affecting attractiveness. We also discuss the relatively low equivalence between self-perceived and male-rated attractiveness and how various anthropometric traits are relevant to them in different ways. Finally, we highlight the need to perform integrated-variable studies to fully understand female attractivenessThe research was supported by funds from the grants BFU2010-10981-E of the Spanish MICINN and “FONDECYT Iniciación” #11130028 of the Chilean FONDECY

Afinal, o que atrai as mulheres?: uma revisão meta-analítica das preferências das mulheres por características físicas nos homens

The perception of attractiveness is an evolutionary sexual adaptation of the human species to ensure the selection of high genetic quality mates, in light of sexual selection theory. Thus, opposite-sex judgements of attractiveness should be fairly consistent, and higher for certain characteristics (displayed by high-quality individuals). However, specifically in the case of male physical attractiveness literature, there seems to be great variability in the results. With the aim of providing a clearer picture of what is presently known about women’s physical preferences in men, we explored eight particularly relevant traits of male physical attractiveness: facial averageness, symmetry, sexual dimorphism of shape, colour and facial hair; body type (including muscularity and relevant ratios), hair and relative height. Through a meta-analytic review, we found that: 1) facial averageness and symmetry, waist-to-chest ratio, and height were important predictors of male attractiveness; 2) inconclusive results were found for sexual dimorphism of shape; 3) skin colour and facial hair are relevant factors in attractiveness and need future research; and 4) body hair seems less relevant than other traits. We then present a discussion about the noticeable variability of the literature in the light of evolutionary theory and recent genetics research, and propose that male physical attractiveness may be secondary to behavioural aspects in judgements of attractiveness.Segundo a teoria da seleção natural, a perceção de atratividade é uma adaptação sexual evolutiva da espécie humana para garantir a seleção de parceiros de alta qualidade genética. Consequentemente, julgamentos de atratividade feitos por indivíduos do sexo oposto deveriam ser consistentes, e mais elevados para determinadas caraterísticas (que fossem exibidas por indivíduos de alta qualidade genética). No entanto, especificamente na literatura relativa aos julgamentos sobre a atratividade masculina, existe uma grande variedade nos resultados. Com a intenção de clarificar aquilo que atualmente se sabe sobre as preferências das mulheres por características físicas nos homens, explorámos oito características físicas particularmente relevantes para a perceção de atratividade masculina relativamente à face – ‘cara média’, simetria, dimorfismo sexual da forma, cor e distribuição de pêlo – e ao corpo – tipo (incluindo musculatura e rácios relevantes), distribuição de pêlo e altura relativa. Através de uma revisão meta-analítica, verificámos que: 1) a ‘cara média’, simetria facial, rácio cintura-peito e altura aparentam ser importantes preditores de atratividade masculina; 2) resultados inconclusivos foram encontrados para o papel do dimorfismo sexual na forma da face; 3) a cor da pele da face e a distribuição de pêlo facial são características aparentemente relevantes para a atratividade e requerem estudo futuro; 4) a distribuição de pêlo no corpo parece ser menos relevante que outras características. Por fim, apresentamos uma discussão sobre a grande variabilidade da literatura neste campo à luz da teoria evolutiva e descobertas recentes da genética, e propomos que a atratividade física nos homens poderá ser secundária a aspetos comportamentais.Mestrado em Psicologia da Saúde e Reabilitação Neuropsicológic

Facial symmetry is positively associated with self-reported extraversion

Fink et al. (2005) reported significant associations between facial symmetry and scores on some of the “big five” personality dimensions derived from self-report data. In particular, they identified a positive association between facial symmetry and extraversion, but negative associations between facial symmetry and both agreeableness and openness. Fink et al. (2005) used a measure of facial symmetry based on analysis of the central region of each face. In the present study we attempted to replicate these findings with a much larger sample (N = 294) and using a landmark-based measure of facial symmetry that includes peripheral regions of the face. In both sexes, we found a significant positive association between self-reported extraversion and facial symmetry but were unable to replicate any of the other previously reported associations. Nevertheless, the positive association between symmetry and extraversion provides further support for the idea that facial appearance could predict personality and therefore makes it possible for some personality attributions to be “data driven”, i.e. driven by properties of the target

Symmetry and sexual dimorphism in human faces: interrelated preferences suggest both signal quality

Symmetry and masculinity in human faces have been proposed to be cues to the quality of the owner. Accordingly, symmetry is generally found attractive in male and female faces and femininity is attractive in female faces. Women’s preferences for male facial masculinity vary in ways that may maximise genetic benefits to women’s offspring. Here we examine same- and opposite-sex preferences for both traits (Study 1) and intercorrelations between preferences for symmetry and sexual dimorphism in faces (Study 1, Study 2) using computer manipulated faces. For symmetry, we found that male and female judges preferred symmetric faces more when judging faces of the opposite-sex than when judging same-sex faces. A similar pattern was seen for sexual dimorphism (i.e. women preferred more masculine male faces than men did), but women also showed stronger preferences for femininity in female faces than men reported. This suggests that women are more concerned with female femininity than are men. We also found that in women preferences for symmetry were positively correlated with preferences for masculinity in male faces and that in men preferences for symmetry were positively correlated with preferences for femininity in female faces. These latter findings suggest that symmetry and sexual dimorphism advertise a common quality in faces or that preferences for these facial cues are dependent on a common quality in the judges. Collectively, our findings support the view that preferences for symmetry and sexual dimorphism are related to mechanisms involved in sexual selection and mate choice rather than functionless by-products of other perceptual mechanisms

Fluctuating Asymmetry and Sexual Dimorphism in Human Facial Morphology: A Multi-Variate Study

Background: Fluctuating asymmetry is often used as an indicator of developmental instability, and is proposed as a signal of genetic quality. The display of prominent masculine phenotypic features, which are a direct result of high androgen levels, is also believed to be a sign of genetic quality, as these hormones may act as immunosuppressants. Fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity are therefore expected to covary. However, there is lack of strong evidence in the literature regarding this hypothesis. Materials and methods: In this study, we examined a large dataset of high-density 3D facial scans of 1260 adults (630 males and 630 females). We mapped a high-density 3D facial mask onto the facial scans in order to obtain a high number of quasi-landmarks on the faces. Multi-dimensional measures of fluctuating asymmetry were extracted from the landmarks using Principal Component Analysis, and masculinity/femininity scores were obtained for each face using Partial Least Squares. The possible correlation between these two qualities was then examined using Pearson's coefficient and Canonical Correlation Analysis. Results: We found no correlation between fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity in men. However, a weak but significant correlation was found between average fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity in women, in which feminine faces had higher levels of fluctuating asymmetry on average. This correlation could possibly point to genetic quality as an underlying mechanism for both asymmetry and masculinity; however, it might also be driven by other fitness or life history traits, such as fertility. Conclusions: Our results question the idea that fluctuating asymmetry and masculinity should be (more strongly) correlated in men, which is in line with the recent literature. Future studies should possibly focus more on the evolutionary relevance of the observed correlation in women

Body odor quality predicts behavioral attractiveness in humans

Growing effort is being made to understand how different attractive physical traits co-vary within individuals, partly because this might indicate an underlying index of genetic quality. In humans, attention has focused on potential markers of quality such as facial attractiveness, axillary odor quality, the second-to-fourth digit (2D:4D) ratio and body mass index (BMI). Here we extend this approach to include visually-assessed kinesic cues (nonverbal behavior linked to movement) which are statistically independent of structural physical traits. The utility of such kinesic cues in mate assessment is controversial, particularly during everyday conversational contexts, as they could be unreliable and susceptible to deception. However, we show here that the attractiveness of nonverbal behavior, in 20 male participants, is predicted by perceived quality of their axillary body odor. This finding indicates covariation between two desirable traits in different sensory modalities. Depending on two different rating contexts (either a simple attractiveness rating or a rating for long-term partners by 10 female raters not using hormonal contraception), we also found significant relationships between perceived attractiveness of nonverbal behavior and BMI, and between axillary odor ratings and 2D:4D ratio. Axillary odor pleasantness was the single attribute that consistently predicted attractiveness of nonverbal behavior. Our results demonstrate that nonverbal kinesic cues could reliably reveal mate quality, at least in males, and could corroborate and contribute to mate assessment based on other physical traits

Genetic and phenotypic cues associated with facial attractiveness and health

Facial attractiveness plays a crucial role in human mate choice, with individuals from both sexes using facial attractiveness cues to some degree when choosing a partner. Although some of the general facial attractiveness preferences have been studied in cross-cultural populations, most of the research focused specifically on Western populations. Most previous studies also approached facial attractiveness solely from a psychological point of view. One notable exception was a recent study by Roberts et al. (2005) in which the authors linked the Human Leococyte Antigen (HLA) system to cues for health and facial attractiveness in males. This study provides fascinating evidence that genes involved in the immune response also signal attractiveness and health. But is this true cross-culturally and across genders? Roberts et al. (2005) used a British population, who compared to other populations worldwide, have relatively few pathogens that routinely challenge their immune response. The first objective of our study was to test the role of the HLA system in an African female population with a high pathogen load. We found that common HLA alleles, that seemingly provide resistance against common pathogens, play a more important role in health measures than heterozygosity per se. However, our results showed these individuals were not necessarily rated more attractive. So which facial cues do individuals from our study population find attractive in the opposite sex? According to this study individuals from both sexes prefer neotenous features in the opposite sex. Interestingly, we found no preference for facial symmetry and only a slight preference for femininity in females. Our findings support the hypothesis by Boothroyd et al. (2005) that preference for femininity is a by-product of preference for neotenous cues. To test if ethnic preference could not play a confounding role in facial attractiveness ratings of the ethnically mixed South African population, we tested ethnic recognition in two abundant South African ethnic groups. Our results showed that individuals from both sexes could not reliably assign ethnicity to facial images of the two groups. Ethnic preference could therefore not play a role in our study. But mate choice does not only depend on cues displayed by the person being observed. Conditional dependent factors, inherent to the observer, influence how choosy they are of potential partners and therefore how attractive they rate members of the opposite sex. We tested the role of three condition dependent factors, age self-perceived attractiveness and relationship status in both sexes. We observed no significant difference in choosiness between males and females. Male choice therefore plays a more important role in human mate choice than previously expected. Furthermore, our study showed that condition dependent factors affect choosiness differently in males and females. Females are generally more sensitive to condition dependent factors, especially self-perceived attractiveness, while males showed no correlation between any of the condition-dependent factors and choosiness. Since HIV is so prevalent in the South African population, we also tested the role of self esteem in predicting sexual risky behaviour. Our results showed that high self-esteem males were more likely to be sexually active after the age of 18, but that males with low self-esteem were more likely to start sexual activity prematurely. We observed no significant correlation for females. These results indicate that HIV prevention campaigns should focus more on behavioural outcomes other than abstinence, instead of challenging the cultural norms, as indicated by the behavior of high self-esteem individuals. In conclusion, this dissertation is based on the first comprehensive study of genetic and conditional cues associated with facial attractiveness and health in an African population. This African population, with its high pathogen load, high diversity and novel cultural background provided many novel findings, which would hopefully contribute to a more universal view of human mate choice.Dissertation (MSc (Genetics))--University of Pretoria, 2006.Geneticsunrestricte

The Influence of Exposure to Unbalanced Sex Ratios on Perceived Vocal Attractiveness

The population sex ratio greatly impacts human behavior, especially mating patterns. Recent research shows that visual exposure to unbalanced sex ratios influences perceived facial attractiveness for opposite-sex faces. When opposite-sex faces are scarce in exposure, subsequent opposite-sex faces are rated as more attractive than when they are plentiful during exposure. The current work examines an auditory analog of this effect by exposing listeners to unbalanced ratios of male and female voices and measuring the perceived attractiveness of subsequently presented opposite sex voices. A 2x2 ANOVA was conducted with participant sex and sex ratio exposure as the between-subject factors. Results showed that when participants were in the low-exposure group, ratings of opposite-sex voices were significantly greater than the ratings from participants who were in the high-exposure group. These findings present new evidence that could further explain the effect of unbalanced sex ratios of local populations on mating-related behaviors in humans

Correlates of Non-Clinical Facial Asymmetry and Facial Sexual Dimorphism in a Sub-Saharan African Population

A substantial body of literature has reported on correlates of facial symmetry and facial masculinity/femininity including the role these two traits play in human mate choice. However, major gaps persist, with nearly all data originating from Western industrialised populations, and results remaining largely equivocal when compared across studies. This thesis has two parts: the 1st part sets out to explore if human variation in measures of socioeconomic and health status is reflected in variation in facial asymmetry as a measure of developmental stability, or reflected in variation in facial masculinity/femininity as a measure of facial sexual dimorphism. The faces of 426 participants (215 males, 211 females) from the Hausa ethnic group of northern Nigeria were scanned using a 3D surface laser scanner. This population could potentially provide greater variation in developmental and other environmental factors than studies based on Western industrialised populations. Facial asymmetry and masculinity data were generated from the resulting virtual 3D models, individual biometric data were recorded, and socioeconomic and past medical history data were acquired through questionnaires. For the 2nd part of the thesis, 179 raters (98 males, 81 females) were recruited in order to determine their perceptions and judgements of standardised facial images with different levels of asymmetry and masculinity/femininity using questionnaires. Data were analysed using bivariate and multivariate methods. Significant correlates of whole face asymmetry included age, body height, whole face surface area (WFSA), education and diastolic blood pressure (BP). Significant correlates of asymmetry in the eye region alone included weight, sex, body mass index (BMI), and diastolic BP. Significant correlates of facial masculinity/femininity included body height, number of siblings, income, and total disease loads (TOTDX) in females, and WFSA, occupation and TOTDX in males. In the 2nd part of the study, individuals with higher facial symmetry and facial femininity were perceived as more attractive, more suitable as marriage partners and more caring, whereas less symmetrical and more masculine individuals were perceived as more aggressive. Although the amount of variation explained by statistically significant correlates was routinely low, the results of this study are consistent with an evolutionary psychological perspec¬tive on the link between physical attractiveness, health and environment. The study can also conclusively assert that facial symmetry or masculinity preferences were not just dependent on single, but rather on multiple facial features; thus the study supports that physical attractiveness is not just an arbitrary social construct, but at least in part a cue to general health and related to environmental context